SCHOOL AND HOME EDUCATION MONOGRAPHS 

L r 

rxfjr^-X NUMBER FOUR 

S3Jg nationality and 

R^lo. SCHOOL PROGRESS 




Class Lt (. "gTS-g 

Book . C:^ 3. 'J 4 
igt 



\42L 



CiDPXRIGllT DEPOSIT. 



Nationality and School Progress 
A Study in Americanization 



By 

RIVERDA HARDING JORDAN, Ph.D. 

Professor of Education, 
Dartmouth College 



PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING COMPANY 

Bloomington, Illinois 




^^^^^ 



Copyright, 1921 by 
PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING COMPANY 
Bloomington, Illinois 



JUN 16 1921 



CU614'732 



PUBLISHER'S PREFACE 

A careful study of the effect on the school progress of 
individuals and of school classes due to the presence of so 
large a percentage of children of other nationalities is an 
undoubted contribution to American pedagogical literature. 
As yet, the means are not at hand to carry such a study to 
completion. There are not yet available instruments for 
measuring school progress so well designed and standardized 
as to detect the exact effects of nationality. There are 
other factors from which the nationality factor can not be 
so separated as to determine the effect of each on school 
progress. 

The most significant chapter of this study is Chapter 
Seven. In it are presented facts with regard to mobility of 
pupils, the occupation and economic status of parents, home 
condi lions, church connections and other relations which 
affect school progress and also affect the conditions under 
which the pupils of dift'erent nationalities must do school 
work. American children should lead in school progress 
when, as shown in Table XXXIII, forty-seven percent of 
all fathers in the professions are Americans. Less than one 
third as many are Swedes, the nationality ranking second in 
this group. Add to this the evidence that the language 
difficulty of foreign-born pupils is very real and there ceases 
to be much significance in moderate differences in school 
progress in favor of American children. 

School administrators will find much encouragement in 
the results of this study for their efforts to Americanize the 
children of all nationalities. . They can make the schools a 
real ^'melting pot" for the immigrants without lowering the 
standard for mental ability or for capacity to become good 
citizens. Such is the evidence brought out in this study. 



CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

I. Introductory Statement 1 

II. Scope and Field of the Inquiry 5 

III. Manner and Method of the Study 14 

IV. Nationality Factors Composing the School Population: 

a. Birthplace of Parents 19 

b. Birthplace of Grandparents 19 

c. Birthplace of Children 22 

d. Language Persistence in the Home 26 

V. Nationality and School Progress: 

1. Retardation 32 

2. Acceleration 38 

3. School Marks 41 

VI. Nationality and Objective Mental Tests 59 

VII. The Nationality Factor in Relation to Other Factors as 
Affecting School Progress: 

a. Mobility of Students 76 

b. Occupation of Parents 81 

c. Economic Status of Parents 85 

d. Home Conditions, Church Attendance, etc 87 

VIII. Summary and Conclusions 94 

IX. Bibliography 104 



CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT 

The value of objective standards as aids to effective 
educational administration is continually becoming more 
evident and accordingly the acquisition of facts which may 
assist in the establishment of such standards is becoming 
more welcome. With the thought of making a slight 
contribution to this literature of administration, the follow- 
ing study has been undertaken. 

In facing the enormous problem of assimilating and 
nationalizing the mighty influx of immigrants and their 
offspring, the American nation has^ incidentally rather than 
intentionally, given over the task to the American public 
school. In carrying out this serious and stupendous 
obligation, the school has shown a wonderful courage and 
astonishing resourcefulness. And yet, effectual as have 
been the results when viewed in the large, the events of the 
past two years have brought home the fact that this inci- 
dental function of the school has lacked that complete 
fulfilment of purpose which results from carefully planned 
and scientifically developed effort. Clearly, the public 
school is the proper and most effective agency for keeping 
alive true national spirit in the native born, and for instilling 
it in the new arrival and his children, or, rather, through 
his children. But when the subject is taken up in a con- 
scious and thorough-going manner, it is found to have many 
hitherto unsuspected phases and aspects. One fundamental 
need which appears immediately is that of a more careful 
study of the population itself, in its constituent elements. 
Too often, the attitude of administrators of education. 



2 Nationality and School Progress 

especially in our inland states, has been to assume the 
position that the onus should be shouldered by the receiving 
ports of debarkation, and by the teachers of the isolated 
settlements known as ''Little Italics," "Little Russias," 
Germanics and the like, scattered here and there through 
the country. As to the rest of the country Americanization 
has not been a matter of definite study, or considered impor- 
tant enough for an application of the facts of population, 
even were they presented in scientific form. Yet the most 
careless perusal of the United States census reports must 
impress the fact that the element of our population, com- 
prising 46.2% of the whole, and made up of foreign borii 
whites, or native born whites of foreign born or mixed par- 
entage, and of alien whites and dark skinned races of varied 
origin, is quite generally distributed throughout our land, 
with rather a marked predilection for city and town life. 
Surely the simple fact that nearly half of our population is 
made up of persons who are not native born, or children of 
native born parents, should set every superintendent to 
studying the composition of his own constituency, with 
respect to its national composition as well as its social and 
economic status. Without such knowledge, how can he 
hope to have his schools function properly in this great work 
of developing a national consciousness? With the stimulus 
that the war has given to the study of nationalities and, 
through their presence in our midst, to the responsibility 
which our nation may come to hold toward the countries of 
their origin, in the impending settlement of the affairs of 
Europe, it should be very easy for every school administrator 
to get at facts which will enable him to attack the problem 
of his community more intelligently. 

We are not yet entirely clear just how far such an analysis 
of the school constituency should be carried, nor just what 
will be the problems of curriculum and variation of methods 



Introductory Statement 3 

occasioned by the discovery of a mixture of nationalities in 
any community. Our theory that the traditional elementary 
curriculum is admirably adapted to every child, of whatever 
origin or capacity, would shut the door to any great varia- 
tion resulting from divergent blood strains in the district. 
This theory, of course, is constantly defended, as being 
thoroughly democratic and insuring fair play to all. And, 
if it should develop, on studying critically the children of the 
polyglot group whom we are training, that all nationalities 
respond with equal facility and success to this scheme, then 
there is nothing more to be said. But teachers and super- 
intendents are continually making sweeping generalizations 
regarding the various nationalities under their care, which 
would seem to imply that there are marked differences in 
capacity and habits of application, as well as in traditions 
and conventions, of such a nature as to require, in a thor- 
oughly efficient and scientific treatment of the situation, 
widely varying methods of treatment. When one hears 
such persons speak carelessly, although as with authority, 
of the ''bright Jewish children" as against the "stolid 
Scandinavians," of the "persevering Scots" as contrasted 
with "those mercurial Irish," when they proclaim confidently 
"the advantage of the pupil who speaks a foreign language 
in the home" as against the poor unfortunate whose parents' 
sole possession is English, even though pure and undefiled, 
it would seem that such assertions should either be con- 
firmed, or a definite quietus be put to unreliable statements 
predicated upon prejudice, superficial observation, or narrow 
range of experience. One great reason, of course, for such 
carelessness in expression is the almost complete absence of 
authoritative evidence easily accessible to check the state- 
ments. 

In view of the situation as outlined, it has seemed essential 
to make a beginning toward a better understanding of the 



4 Nationality and School Progress 

varied constituency of our population by means of an 
impartial endeavor to determine whether essential differences 
can readily be detected, and if so, whether they are suffi- 
ciently marked to require modification in any respect of 
ordinary educational procedure. The investigation has 
thus taken a form which may perhaps be best designated a 
study of nationality in its relation to school progress. 

The author wishes to express here his deep appreciation 
of the assistance rendered by the many persons who have 
made the study possible : to the principals and teachers of the 
schools studied in Minneapolis and St. Paul; to the graduate 
students of the College of Education of the University of 
Minnesota who assisted in the giving of the tests ; to Dr. M. J. 
Van Wagenen, who supervised and checked the statistical 
work; to Prof. G. M. Whipple, of the University of Michigan, 
who read the manuscript and made many valuable sug- 
gestions; to the author's wife and mother, who assisted 
materially in collecting and arranging the data; and finally 
to Dr. L. D. Coffman, President of the University of Minne- 
sota, who directed and inspired the entire study. 



CHAPTER II 

SCOPE AND FIELD OF THE INQUIRY 

The investigation of nationality in its relation to school 
progress is practically a virgin field. Mr. Leonard P. Ayres, 
in his ''Laggards in Our Schools" (1909), p. 106, says: 
". . . . so far as can be ascertained (no facts) at all have 
been cited to show what races succeed best in our schools 
and which ones worst." And now, ten years later, but 
little more can be said. Mr. Ayres examined the records of 
some 20,000 pupils in 15 New York City schools in which 
was given the nationality of the fathers of the children, to 
see whether the nationality of the father seemed to have any 
relation to the questions of retardation and acceleration, 
and decided that there were differences due to nationality. 
He gave it as his belief that "the question of how to handle a 
Scotch immigrant child is very different from that of how 
to treat an Italian. The education of an English boy is not 
at all the same task as the educating of a Russian" (p. 106). 
But he is unwilling to commit himself as to any opinion 
beyond the seeming evidence of the tendency quoted, saying 
that the current feeling that Southern European races are 
inferior to the Northern is by no means established, and 
closing the discussion with the first quoted statement. 

Dr. J. K. Van Denburg, in his "Causes of Elimination of 
Students in the Public Secondary Schools of New York City" 
(1911) measured the actual effects of various possible causes 
of elimination in the cases of a thousand pupils taken at 
random from those who entered the public high schools 
of New York City in February, 1906. Among the factors 
determined in this study was the nationality of the pupil's 
father. Using this as a basis, Dr. Van Denburg found that 



6 Nationality and School Progress 

children of Irish parentage were eliminated first from high 
school, American next, German next, while Russians were 
most apt to remain in high school to complete the course. 

Another type of study which has been made is that of 
Mr. R. D. Chadwick, principal of the Stowe grammar school 
of Duluth, Minnesota, in his own school, and published 
in the Journal of Education (Boston) Oct. 31st, 1918, under 
the title "Know Your School." Mr. Chadwick points out 
the problem facing administrators of schools containing a 
polyglot population by tabulating the different nationalities 
represented in his building, based on information given by 
406 pupils regarding their parents. These children represent 
25 pure and 36 mixed nationalities. There is no attempt 
made to show the relative standing in school work of these 
pupi's, and, indeed, such an attempt would have been futile, 
from the fact that there were so few of each nationality 
represented in the school. Nor is there any indication that 
any adjustment should be made in the course of study or 
method of presentation of the work to meet the needs of any 
of these nationalities as contrasted with the others. 

In the survey of the Cleveland Public Schools, made under 
the direction of Mr. L. P. Ayres, in 1915, some attention 
was paid to the nationality factor in the tests given in 
reading. In the volume of the Survey entitled ''Measuring 
the Work of the Public Schools," by Dr. Charles H. Judd, 
(Vol. 10) in pp. 144-7, a report is made of tests given in oral 
reading in eight American schools, two Italian schools, three 
Hebrew school?, and seven Polish and Bohemian schools. 
However the report qualifies its findings' thus: "The results 
shown can be accepted only in a very general way for two 
reasons. The first is that the number of schools involved in 
some cases is limited. The second is that it is not certain 
in all cases that the pupils tested from a school in which a 
given nationality dominated were of that type. The results 



Scope and Field of the Inquiry 7 

are, however, accurate enough to serve in suggesting explana- 
tions of some of the earlier results reported for individual 
schools." The results in each school are compared with the 
average scores in the Cleveland schools in general, in oral 
reading, and show that the American schools are superior 
'in achievement during the first three gtades and from that 
point on follow the average very closely. Italian pupils are 
seriously handicapped. The children in the Hebrew schools 
are distinctly ahead of the average Cleveland pupils. Poles 
and Bohemians make slow progress during the first year, 
follow the average closely for the next four, and then drop 
below the average during the last three years. But after all, 
the very fact that is indicated in the report, namely, that 
there are two outstanding reasons against drawing definite 
conclusions from the results quoted leaves a well-defined 
doubt as to the correctness of the conclusions, and makes 
but the more evident a need for a careful study of national 
tendencies, and especially of those where the pupils them- 
selves are not under the handicap of foreign birth. Nor 
can definite conclusions be drawn from grades made in a 
single subject. 

These studies quoted comprise the important contribu- 
tions to the subject now available. Clearly, no one of them 
makes any serious attempt to examine into the individual's 
ancestry, or tries to differentiate between the child of parents 
representing only the first or second generation in this 
country, and him whose grandparents were native born 
Americans, and therefore truly American in origin. 

There are, of course, varying concepts regarding the mean- 
ing of the word ''nationaHty." It is felt, however, that 
there is no need to go into this subject further than to say 
that in this study nationality will be taken to mean a group 
of people who speak essentially the same language, and who 
therefore may be considered to derive their origin from the 



8 Nationality and School Progress 

geographical division in which that language is dominant. 
Accordingly, the present study has been undertaken with 
the idea of determining whether the factor of nationality 
of school children enters into their progress in school, in so 
far as this can be determined by a comparison of children 
of foreign-born ancestry, with those of distinctively American 
parentage. 

In order to make such a comparison, a field for the in- 
vestigation should be a community which has a population 
made up in about equal parts of Americans and of European 
nationalities. Such a combination affords a better basis for 
comparison in that the lack of either American or foreign 
predominance tends to equalize conditions of social develop- 
ment, since no one nationality dominates the others. The 
United States census reports of 1910 name eight cities of 
over 100,000 population in this country which are made up 
of nearly equal parts of the three classes of inhabitants 
listed in the nationality study of the census, namely, native 
whites of native parentage; native whites of foreign or 
mixed parentage; and foreign born whites. Such cities 
would seem to be the best fields for such comparisons as 
proposed, for on account of the nearly equal proportions 
of these three elements, there is no appreciable dominance 
of any one nationality, and so conditions are most favorable 
for uniform development of all. The cities are: Cambridge; 
Detroit;' Minneapolis; Newark; New Haven; Providence; 
St. Paul; Worcester. Before deciding upon any one or 
more of these cities as a proper field of inquiry, a further 
examination should be made, to determine whether there 
is a suf&cient distribution of nationalities to make a com- 
parative study possible. The following table indicates 
the character of the population of St. Paul and of Minne- 
apolis, as indicated by the Census Reports of 1910: 



Scope and Field of the Inquiry 



TABLE I 



PERCENTAGE OF FOREIGN BORN INHABITANTS OF MINNEAPOLIS AND ST. PAUL, 

RELATED TO THE ENTIRE NUMBER OF FOREIGN BORN RESIDENTS OF THE 

TWO CITIES: (united STATES CENSUS OF 1910) 





Minneapolis 


St. Paul 


Swedes 


30.8 
10.1 
19.1 
8.7 
8.5 
6.6 
3.3 
3.3 
2.4 
1.0 
6.2 


20.1 


Germans 


24.8 


Norwegians 


7.2 


Canadians 


7.7 


Austrians 


10.4 


Russians 


7.7 


Irish 


7.4 


English 


3.8 


Danes 


2.5 


Finns 


0;1 


All Others 


8.3 








100.0 


100.0 



The outstanding characteristic of this table is, of course, 
the predominance of northern European nationalities. 
However, a more detailed study of the composition of various 
wards and schools brings out a larger actual number of 
southern Europeans than this table would indicate. This 
will develop later in the study. Thus, in several schools 
there are, as a matter of fact, enough Italians, Roumanians, 
and Hungarians to make comparisons of some value. 
• The figures of actual population in each city are given 
in Tables ii and iii. 



10 



Nationality and School Progress 



TABLE II 



CONSTITUENCY OF FOREIGN BORN, AND OF NATIVE BORN WITH ONE OR BOTH 

PARENTS FOREIGN BORN, POPULATION OF MINNEAPOLIS, (CENSUS, 1910) 

TOTAL CENSUS OF MINNEAPOLIS, 301,408 









Native Born with: 


Nationality 


Foreign Born 


Both parents 
F. B. 


One parent 
F. B. 




Number 


% 


Number 


Number 


Austrian 


6,075 

63 

1,637 

5,877 

2,030 

2,798 

875 

293 

8,650 

463 

209 

1,176 

2,867 

653 

118 

16,401 

1,412 

5,654 

1,060 

26,477 

299 

280 

213 

358 


7.1 

.1 

1.9 

6.8 

2.4 

3.3 

1.0 

.3 

10.1 

.5 

.2 

1.4 

3.3 

.8 

.1 

19.1 

1.6 

6.6 

1.2 

30.8 

.3 

.3 

.2 

.4 


3,958 

25 

1,923 

2,423 

1,310 

1,697 

395 

301 

14,798 

36 

171 

506 

7,180 

279 


530 


Belgian 


45 


Canada French 

Canada Others 

Danish . 


1,592 

5,396 

549 


English 


2,951 
66 


Finns 


French 

Germans 


300 
6 544 


Greeks ............ 


19 


Holland 


120 


Hungary 


75 


Irish . 


3,548 
81 


Italian 


Montenegrins 




Norwegians 

Roumanians 

Russians . 


14,267 

549 

2,992 

740 

22,326 

302 

81 

296 

8,757 


3,603 

8 

225 


Scotch 


919 


Swedes 


3 952 


Swiss . 


283 


Turks 


7 


Welsh 


252 


All Others 


171 






Total 


85,938 
28.5% 


100.0 


85,312 

37.7% 


31,236 





Native whites, native parents, 31.9% of population. 
Negroes, . 9% of population. 



Scope and Field or the Inquiry 



11 



TABLE III 

CONSTITUENCY OF POPULATION OF ST. PAUL, SHOWING NUMBER OF FOREIGN BORN, 

AND OF NATR'E BORN WITH ONE OR BOTH PARENTS FOREIGN BORN 

(census of 1910) 





Foreign Born 


Native B 


orn with: 


Nationality 


Both Parents 
F. B. 


One Parent 
F. B. 




Number 


% 






Number 


Number 


Austrian 


3,900 

70 

• 1,096 

3,302 

1,412 

2,136 

73 

276 

14,025 

129 

194 

1,989 

4,184 

1,994 


6.9 

.1 

1.9 

5.8 

2.5 

3.8 

.1 

.5 

24.8 

.2 

.3 

3.5 

7.4 

3.5 


3,405 

21 

1,208 

1,408 

1,193 

1,553 

14 

244 

23,558 

17 

158 

785 

8,798 

1,050 


904 


Belgian 


32 


Canada French 

Canada Others 

Danish 


1,132 

2,857 

359 


English 


1,820 


Finns 


15 


French 


253 


Germans 


8,156 


Greeks 


16 


Holland 


76 


Hungary 


114 


Irish 


3,889 


Italian 


92 


Montenegrins 




Norwegians 

Roumanians 

Russians 


4,063 
267 

4,359 
669 

11,335 
544 
202 

73 
232 


7.2 
.5 

7.7 

1.2 
20.1 

1.0 
.4 
.1 
.4 


4,001 

68 

2,428 

528 

11,379 

473 

116 

79 

6,747 


1,230 

4 

220 


Scotch 


535 


Swedes 

Swiss 


1,926 
309 


Turks 


6 


Welsh 


111 


All Others 


111 






Total 


56,524 
26.3% 


100.0 


69,231 

43.5% 


24,167 







Total population of St. Paul, 1910, 214,744. 
Native whites, native parents 28.7% of population. 
Negroes 1.5% of population. 



12 



Nationality and School Progress 



Tables ii and iii give an excellent statement of the actual 
number of foreign born and foreign derived inhabitants of 
the Twin Cities, and will be somewhat of an eye-opener to 
those persons who have imagined that the foreign population 
of these cities is almost wholly Scandinavian. 

The distribution of these nationalities over the cities is 
the next item of interest, for a comparative study. In order 
to make well-founded comparisons, there should be a 
sufficient mixture of nationalities working side by side 
in the classroom to make comparisons possible on somewhat 
equal terms. The general situation in Minneapolis is 
indicated very clearly in Table iv. 



table IV 
distribution of foreign born population of MINNEAPOLIS BY WARDS. 

(census of 1910) 



Nationality 



Austria 

Canada French 
Canada others 
Denmark. . . . 

England 

Finland 

Germany 

Hungary 

Ireland 

Norway 

Roumania 

Russia 

Scotland ..... 
Sweden 



Ward Number 



2743 

304 

329 

67 

74 

14 

1226 

140 

296 

316 

52 

493 

18 

627 



II 

253 

89 
482 

85 
169 

26 
341 

10 
127 
630 

33 

83 

1036 



III 

594 
260 
584 
132 
296 
66 

1948 
198 
384 

1440 
178 

3115 
49 

1992 



IV 

279 
146 
740 
195 
530 
537 

1029 
104 
460 

1130 

97 

818 

165 

1821 



191 

68 

788 

210 

382 

31 

552 

31 

287 

1285 

80 

208 

144 

2100 



VI 

776 

39 

72 

134 

66 

33 

237 

565 

146 

2037 

264 

260 

11 

2813 



VII 

25 

40 

311 

176 

164 

29 

268 

8 

221 

1389 

11 

22 

61 

2521 



VIII 

63 

77 

1000 

184 

417 

12 

494 

13 

267 

1106 

16 

66 

197 

1941 



IX 

669 

413 

455 

141 

163 

19 

754 

51 

221 

1715 

3 

277 

90 

3201 



X 

210 

99 

303 

73 

74 

39 

813 

14 

88 

1155 

2 

130 

34 

2499 



XI 

85 

17 

117 

259 

78 

28 

285 

20 

131 

2621 

644 

207 

41 

3119 



XII 

166 

51 

206 

273 

164 

39 

441 

6 

152 

1154 

65 

13 

80 

1872 



XIII 

21 

34 

490 

101 

219 

2 

262 

16 

87 

423 



12 

87 

935 



Scope and Field of the Inquiry 13 

This Minneapolis table is decidedly illuminating, especially 
to persons who expect to find marked segregation of various 
nationalities in definite '^quarters." Although there are 
evident certain gregarious tendencies, yet it will be noted 
that every nationality listed, with one exception, is repre- 
sented in every ward of the city. It will be noted further 
that the smallest number of Swedes living in any one ward 
is 627; of Germans, 237; of Norwegians, 316; so that of these 
nationalities, at least, there will be sufficient contribution 
to the schools of any ward in the city to warrant a selection 
of schools by wards, without other guide, which would give 
scope for a very satisfactory comparative study. As a 
matter of fact, the investigator's knowledge of social and 
economic conditions of the city made it possible to use this 
basis as only a contributing element of his final choice. 

The distribution for St. Paul is given on Page 1018, Vol. 
II of the United States Census of 1910, and shows a condition 
similar to that in Minneapolis. 

From these facts of the census, it appears that the twin 
cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul afford a field broad enough 
for definite conclusions from a comparison of different 
nationalities with native American stock. The distribution 
of population among the various wards of these cities proves 
that it is possible to select public schools which draw from 
localities in which an adequate number of nationalities are 
represented for such a comparison. 

The present investigation was accordingly limited to 
schools in the Twin Cities. 



CHAPTER III 

MANNER AND METHOD OF THE STUDY 

In order to get at the facts of nationality and progress 
of school children, co-operation of the school authorities of 
Minneapolis and St. Paul was asked, and granted for those 
schools selected^ as centers of investigation. The schools 
were, in Minneapolis, the Motley (2d ward), Grant (3d ward), 
Harrison (4th ward), Jackson and Clay (6th ward), Calhoun 
(8th ward), Prescott (9th ward), Holland (10th ward), 
Adams (11th ward), and Bryant (13th ward). In St. Paul, 
the Franklin, Sibley, and Van Buren. The records of the 
schools were put at the disposal of the investigator, and the 



^ The principal basis for selecting these schools was that of securing repre- 
sentation from districts of varied social constituency, and buildings of sufficient 
size to give enough pupils per grade and class for adequate comparisons within 
the school. The Motley School was first chosen to test the method employed 
in the study, from the fact of a varied constituency, drawn both from a pros- 
perous industrial community and also from the University section, so that 
children of University professors and children of mechanics of foreign origin 
are enrolled in the same classes. The results of the study in this school encour- 
aged further study, and the Calhoun and Bryant schools were selected from the 
best residence sections of the city, the Calhoun from the West High District, 
and the Bryant from the immediate neighborhood of the Central High School; 
the Prescott school in Northeast MinneapoHs, the Harrison, in North Minne- 
apolis, representing "middle class" districts of comfortable homes; the Adams 
in South MinneapoHs, and the Holland in Northeast Minneapolis, generally 
thought of as being located in "foreign" districts of the better type; the Grant, 
on the edge of the "Ghetto" of North Minneapolis, and the Jackson and Clay 
schools, situated in a settlement district which draws principally from the slums 
of South Minneapolis and the "river flats." 

In St. Paul, it was possible, on account of the "war conditions," to obtain 
access to schools through personal acquaintance only. As a result, it was im- 
possible to make a selection based on definite plan, but in matter of fact, the 
schools used showed a very good "sampHng" of nationahties, and proved to 
represent varied social groups. 

14 



Manner and IMethod of the Study 15 

principals of the various buildings gave their hearty co- 
operation. Even though the investigation was made during 
the school year 1917-18, when the schools were overloaded 
with outside activities and hampered with all sorts of inter- 
ruptions, yet the investigation was w^elcomed heartily, both 
on account of the interest manifested in an inquiry of the sort, 
and on account of the fact that the investigator had just 
resigned from the Minneapolis school system, and so found 
himself working among friends and recent co-laborers. This 
fact of close co-operation made the results more accurate 
than would have been possible in working with strangers, 
for the personal interest of the principals and teachers 
resulted in a close scrutiny and correction of the question- 
naires which were used. In order to get the facts of parentage 
from several thousand cases, a house to house canvass was 
manifestly impossible and as the facts needed were all 
purely objective, and easily answered through a question 
blank, it was felt that the inaccuracies of the usual question- 
naire would be largely eliminated by an arrangement of check 
questions, and careful supervision. 

Accordingly the following blank was prepared, and placed 
in the hands of the pupils: 

PUPIL'S CARD 

1. Name 2. Age — Years Months 3. Grade 

4. Sex 5. Race (White, Negro, Japanese) 6. Do you wear 

glisses? 7. Is your general health good? Fair? Poor? 

8. Have you had a serious illness during the past year (serious enough so that 
you lost two weeks or more from school)? 

9. Father born in City or County. . . . State .... Country 

10. Mother born in City or County. . . .State. . . .Country 

11. Father's father born in City or County. . . .State. . . .Country 

12. Father's mother born in City or County. . . .State. . . .Country 

13. Mother's father born in City or County. . . .State. . . .Country 

14. Mother's mother born in City or County. . . . State .... Country 



16 Nationality and School Progress 

15. What language does your father speak at home? '. 

16. "What language does your mother speak at home? 

17. What language, besides English, can you speak? 

18. What language, besides English, can you understand? 

19. How long has your father been in the United States? 

20. How long has your mother been in the United States? 

21. How many brothers have you? 22. Sisters? 23. Are you the 

oldest? 

24. If you are not the oldest, are you the second, third, or where do you come? 

25. What places have you lived in besides Minneapolis? 



26. Is your father living? 27. Your mother? 

28. If your father is living, what is his occupation or business? 

29. If your mother helps support the family, what is her occupation? 

30. Do you work to earn money?. 31. What do you do? 

32. What do you make per week?. ..... .33. About how much did you earn 

last year? 34. Do you help support the family? 

35. Do you spend this money on 

yourself, save it, or give it to your parents? 

36. Does your family own the home? . . . .37. Rent? 

38. What church does your father belong to (if any)? 39. Mother? 

40. What other schools in this city have you attended? 



41. In any other town or county? 

42. What is your height?. 43. Weight? , 

44. Color of eyes? 45. Hair? . . . 



It will be noted that the answers required are mostly of 
one word, that they are all matters of fact, and not of 
opinion and in general of a type to call for no great exercise 
of mental effort. The important questions 9-14 are checked 
by questions 15-18, by questions 19-20, and by questions 
25 and 40. In the case of some religious beliefs, as the Jews, 
questions 38-39 also served as check questions. Questions 
2-4, 8, 42-43 could be directly checked from the school 
records. Thus the principal objections to the questionnaire 
method are obviated by this system of checks, especially 
when it is remembered that the principals and teachers were 



Manner and Method of the Study 17 

ready and willing to assist in giving further information in 
doubtful cases. But with all of these safe-guards, it was 
thought best to place the blanks in the hands of the pupils 
of the three highest grades only, namely the 6th, 7th, and 
8th. 2 When it is understood that in nearly all cases the 
blanks were given to the children and were to be taken home, 
and filled out with the assistance of the parents, and in many 
cases accompanied by a mimeographed statement from the 
principal explaining the purpose of the questionnaire, further 
precautions will be seen to have been provided against error. 
High School pupils were not included in the inquiry for 
the reason that the most universal distribution of national- 
ities was desired, so that by limiting the inquiry to those 
grades in which the compulsory^ laws were most generally 
in force, this end was most nearly secured. Then it was 
necessary that the subjects of study of those pupils under 
consideration should be as far as possible, the same. The 
differentiation of the high school courses, either junior or 
senior, would prevent this, so that only schools were chosen 



• The selection of the three highest grades has an advantage in that the 
early effects of language difficulties on the part of the foreign-born are generally 
presumed to be largely eliminated, and while the effects of such difi&culties may 
be felt still in the matter of retardation, they will not be so appreciable a factor 
in the school marks for the grades studied. On the other hand, there is the 
difficulty that the children may have been in the schools so long that national 
or racial differences have been neutralized by the school influence, so that initial 
differences may not persist. In answer, it may be said that if no appreciable 
differences are found, the latter supposition may be assigned as one reason for 
such lack of difference. On the other hand, if differences are found which seem 
to be based upon nationality, the conclusion that there are national differences 
is definitely strengthened by the fact of the higher grades being used. The 
sequel will show whether the need for further study of the lower grades is desir- 
able. 

3 The compulsory age law in Minnesota provides that children must attend 
school between the ages of eight and fourteen, or if the eighth grade be not com- 
pleted, between the ages of eight and sixteen. 



18 Nationality and School Progress 

in which there was the greatest uniformity of subject matter 
offered to the pupils. 

From the thirteen schools investigated, 2653 question- 
naires were collected which were filled out sufficiently to be 
of some value in the study. As is inevitable in such a can- 
vass, all questions were not answered on all blanks, so that 
blanks which had to be rejected for some studies were yet 
available for others. Accordingly, the number of totals 
in the succeeding tables will not always agree. In the case 
of comparisons with school marks, also, the total number was 
not available, owing to the fact that in a number of cases, 
the pupil had come from another school or city so recently 
that his marks were not available for comparative purposes. 

From the school records were taken the marks made by 
the pupils for the preceding term in each subject, the age of 
the pupil on entering school for the current school year 
(September 1917), and where it was available, the record of 
health and vital statistics. As this part of the study was 
made in the second semester of the year 1917-18, the marks 
recorded were those given at the close of the semester just 
completed, and therefore were susceptible of explanation 
by the teachers, where questions arose difficult of interpre- 
tation. The marks were in most cases given on a monthly 
basis, so that in most schools there were four marks recorded 
in each subject, indicating the relative improvement or 
retrogression during the semester in each case. This 
feature was of especial value in evaluating the work of 
repeaters or notably retarded pupils. As has been said, 
principals, teachers, and in some cases, the school clerks 
and nurses were interrogated by way of explaining cases 
otherwise baffling, or by way of checking apparent errors. 
The pupils were not interrogated directly by the investi- 
gator, nor were their parents approached, save in isolated 
instances. 



CHAPTER IV 

NATIONALITY FACTORS COMPOSING THE 
SCHOOL POPULATION 

Birthplace of parents and grandparents. 

a. As has been already pointed out, provision was made 
in the investigation for determining the birthplace not only 
of parents, but also of grandparents of the children under 
observation. This makes it possible to carry the investi- 
gation farther back than is done by the United States Census, 
and to determine more accurately the actual origin of the 
school population. That this is important will be shown 
later, when the persistence of foreign language in the home 
of the foreign born is studied. However, by way of indicat- 
ing the immediate origins, the following analysis of the 
birthplace of parents is given: 

2544 cases were reported accuratel}^ enough for consideration. 
809 of these pupils were children of American born parents. 
1111 were children of foreign parents, of "unmixed" nationality, 
representing 23 nationalities. 

165 were children of foreign born parents, of "mixed" nationality, 
(e.g., one parent German, the other Norwegian), representing 43 such 
mixtures. 

459 were children of "mixed" parents (e. g. one American born, 
the other foreign born). There were 22 of these combinations. 

h. In view of the great number of groups of parents, and 
the numerous mixtures it seemed wise to go back one 
more generation, and determine how many of these parents 
were of native born, foreign born, or ''mixed" parentage. 
Accordingly the birthplaces of grandparents were tabulated, 
thus giving a better index of the true origin of the children 

19 



20 



Nationality and School Progress 



than could be determined from the birthplaces of parents 
only. When this tabulation is examined, the real process 
of amalgamation of various nationalities into one American 
type is seen at its best, and the process thus exhibited is 
startling even to those who have long accepted as a platitude 
the simile of the melting-pot. The children, 2490 cases, 
are divided into groups, in order to show their polyglot origin, 
thus : 

1. All four grandparents born in America. (Native born.) 

2. Three grandparents born in America, one foreign born. 

3>. Two born in America, two foreign born, the latter "unmixed." 

4. Two born in America, two foreign born, the latter "mixed." 

5. One born in America, three foreign born, the latter "unmixed." 

6. One born in America, three foreign born, two of the three 
"unmixed," 

7. One born in America, three foreign born, all different nation- 
alities. 

8. All four foreign born, of the same nationality ("unmixed"). 

9. Four foreign born, three "unmixed." 

10. Four foreign born, two of one nationality, two of another. 

11. Four foreign born, two of one nationality, two "mixed." 

12. Four foreign born, all "mixed," i,e, of different nationality. 



The result of the grouping is as follows: 



Group 



1 


Total 


206 cases 1 nationality 


involved 


2 




95 


12 nat 


ionalities involved 


3 




208 


14 






4 




49 


24 






5 




55 


8 






6 




74 


41 






7 




8 


6 






8 




1,385 ' 


31 




*" 


9 




65 


35 






10 




293 


69 






11 




52 


38 






12 
















Total 2,490 


279 







NATIONALITY Factors Composing the School Population 21 

Thus it will be seen that there are, in a total of 2490 
children, 279 different sources of origin! This seems almost 
inconceivable, but will become plain on a study of the tables 
of distribution which follow. It will be found interesting 
to notice the varied character of the intermarriages, and the 
way in which national characteristics must of necessity be 
merged into some new type. The nature of that new type 
is, beyond question, the concern of the American school 
before any other governmental agency. 

A study of the different groupings and mixtures will bring 
out the fact that in a third generation there is still, in a 
majority of cases, a predominance of some one original 
nationality. Where the ancestry is ''four parts alike," or 
"unmixed," this is clear. Where there are three grand- 
parents of one nation, and only one of another, the predomi- 
nance of the one is still unquestionable. And when there 
are two grandparents of one nationality, and the other two 
of differing nationalities, the predominance of the two who 
are alike must be conceded.^ On the other hand, the cases 
of two of one nationality and the other two of another may 
be considered as equally mixed, whatever the actual biological 
significance may be. This holds true, also, in the few cases 
where all four grandparents are of different nations. 

For purposes of comparison, therefore, it has seemed wise 
to form a new grouping of the predominants, and to use this 
as a basis of comparison as to various traits, with the feeling 



^ Heredity, by J. A. Thomson, N. Y. G. P. Putnam's Sons; London, John 
Murray. 1910, Page 517. Social Aspects of Heredity. "We have defined 
heredity as the genetic relation between successive generations, and inheritance 
as all that the organism is or has to start with in virtue of its hereditary relation 
to parents and ancestors. . . . The great generalisation known as Galton's 
Law of Ancestral Inheritance, according to which inheritances are on an average 
made up of a half from the two parents, a quarter from the four grandparents, an 
eighth from the great-grandparents, and so on may require some adjustment 
as regards the precise fractions, and in relation to cases of inter-crossing, 
but the general fact seems to have been well established, and it is eloquent." 

See also pages 50, 51 and 323, 



22 Nationality and School Progress 

that a grouping based upon origin of grandparents will be 
more trustworthy in making final conclusions, than one 
based on the immediate parentage. The grouping on the 
basis of predominants is shown in Table v. 

The groups shown in Tables v and vi are numbered 
wherever there seems to be a sufficient number of cases to 
warrant comparisons with reference to grades, school ad- 
vancement, marks, and other data. These comparisons will 
be considered later in the study, as the purpose in this place 
is simply to show the varied number of mixtures that occur, 
the ways in which intermarriages mingle the blood of all 
nations, and the consequent social and educational problem. 
With reference to the second point, the tables seem to show 
that while intermarriages between northern European 
nationalities are frequent, the influence of the Ghetto tends 
to keep the Southern European groups in a purer state. 
There are not enough cases of non-Jews to indicate whether 
the intermarriage of southern Gentiles would tend to become 
more frequent than of Jews, although the fact that there are 
certain Italian-Irish and Italian-Swedish alliances might 
indicate a trend toward the same type of intermarriage as 
more clearly shown for the northern groups, wherever 
propinquity occurs. The figures, however, warrant no 
conclusions, unless the fact of the indiscriminate mixtures 
of the northern nations may be considered as giving a basis 
for reasoning that, given analogous conditions of mixed 
residence in our cities, the same mixtures would occur, 
whatever the nationalities involved. This is a sociological 
study which is rather aside from the present inquiry. 

Birthplace of children. 

c. A phase of the problem which can not be overlooked is 
the actual number of children who were themselves born in a 
foreign country, and so may be presumed to have an even 



Nationality Factors Composing the School Population 23 

TABLE V 

grouping of school children by nationalities indicated by birthplace 
or grandparents, on a basis of predominating countries of 

birth 

1. Americans, four grandparents native born 206 

three grandparents- native born, one foreign born. . 95 
two native born, two foreign born, but in different 

countries 49 350 

2. Great Britain, selected as above: 

Canada 29 

England 46 

Ireland 54 

Scotland 11 

Wales 2 

Equal mixtures within the United Kingdom 23 165 

3. Germany 147 

Luxembourg 1 

Switzerland 6 

Equal mixtures of above 23 177 

4. Norway f 215 

5. Sweden 420 

6. Austria-Hungary 

Austria, including Jews 51 

Bohemia 21 

Hungary 12 

Slavonia 1 

Slovak 40 

Equal mixtures of above 4 129 

7. Roumanian Jews ■ 99 

8. Russian Jews . . ^ 336 

9. Poland (German, Russian and Austrian) 38 

10. Finland 45 

11. Denmark -22 

12. Italy 18 

13. Belgians, French, Dutch, Greeks 9 

Total 2,023 



24 Nationality and School Progress 



TABLE VI 

GROUPING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN BY NATIONALITIES INDICATED BY BIRTHPLACE OF 
GRANDPARENTS, SHOWING MIXTURES WHERE NO COUNTRY OF BIRTH 

PREDOMINATES 

13. Two American, two Great Britain 91 

14. two German 64 

15. two Norway 20 

16. two Sweden 25 

two others (miscellaneous) , . 8 208 

17. Two Great Britain, two Germany. 24 

18. two Norway 12 

two others 18 54 

19. Two German, two Norway 14 

20.. two Sweden 15 

two others 14 43 



21. Two Norway, two Sweden. 78 

22. two Denmark 14 

two others. 9 101 

Two Sweden, two others 12 

Two Austrian, two others 10 

23. Two Russian Jew, two Roumanian Jew 16 

two others 3 19 

Unclassified 2 

Each grandparent of a different nationahty 8 

24. Negroes, full blood, or mixed 10 

467 
Predominants, brought forward from Table V 2,023 

Grand Total 2,490 

greater handicap in their school progress than those who 
are born of foreign parentage in this country. Table vii 
gives the facts for this group. Of the 2490 cases studied, 
but 185 were themselves foreign born. The only country 



Nationality Factors Composing the School Population 25 

which has a sufficient representation in this class to be in 
any sense important is Russia. Seventy-eight of the 
Russian Jewish children were born in Russia, and nine of 
them were born in England, a total of 87 in all. Of these 45 
were located in the Grant School, and nearly all of the others 
in the Franklin of St. Paul (31 in fact). 

It is hardly necessary to comment further on this table, 
for it will be seen at once that outside of the Jewish group 

TABLE VII 

TABLE SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS BORN IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, 

BY SCHOOLS 

School Number born School Number 

in foreign 
countr}^ : 

Adams 20 Harrison 13 

Bryant 5 Holland . 8 

Calhoun " 7 Motley. 4 

Clay- Jackson 23 Prescott 7 

Franklin 43 Sibley 2 

Grant 51 Van Buren 2 

Total. "..185 

TABLE SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS BORN IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, 

BY PLACES OF BIRTH 

Country of Birth Number 

Russia 78 

Canada 23 

Roumania 15 

Norway 15 

Sweden 11 

England 13 (includes 9 Russian Jews) 

Austria 10 

Scattering* 20 (not more than 3 from any 1 country) 

Total 185 



* "Scattering" includes"ltaly, Denmark, South America, South Africa, 
Iceland, Finland, Poland, Germany, et al. 



26 Nationality and School Progress 

there are so few belonging to any one nationality group or 
to any one school that there is every ground for the statement 
that the present inquiry is concerned not with the problem 
of teaching the foreignborn, but of administering to the 
needs of the children of the foreignborn, and to their 
children's children. 

Language persistence in the home. 

d. A careful study was made of the parents who were foreign 
born, in order to discover whether the language of birth 
persisted as the language of the home, even after a period 
of years. For this purpose, the parents were listed separately 
so as to get the comparison for both fathers and mothers, 
where they were intermarried with American or English 
born. The tables which follow give the foreign born who 
speak English in the home — a good sign of their Americani- 
zation, in the popular estimate; the native born who never- 
theless speak a foreign language as the home language; a 
grouping of the foreign born who cling to their native 
language, showing how many years they have lived in this 
country; and finally, a table showing the comparisons by 
percentages, of the various nationalities involved. This last 
table brings in some surprising information. Despite the 
campaign of propaganda for ''Kultur" in America with the 
Pan-Germanic dream of a German-speaking United States 
in the next century, the Germans head the list in acquiring 
the English language as the medium of the home! Of 201 
German parents listed, 123, or 61.2% speak English habitu- 
ally in the home. The next best record was made by the 
Danes, 26 out of 63 parents speaking English — 41.3%. The 
poorest showing was made by the Finns,^ only one out of 86 
using English. ' The Slovaks are not much better, five out 
of 77 having given up the home tongue. And the Scandi- 
navians, generally considered to be loyal Americans, do not 



Nationality Factors Composing the School Population 27 

show up as well as one would expect when only 33% Swedes 
and 32.3% Norwegians have acquired the new language as 
a part of their new heritage. These figures must be studied 
in the light of the accompanying statistics, showing the 
length of time the non-English speaking parents have lived 
in this country. When it is noted that 1 1% of the Germans, 
17% of the Swedes, and 19% of the Norwegians, have lived 
in this country over thirty years, and still use the home 
language in the domestic circle, it must be confessed that 
this one of the generally accepted tests of Americanization 
throws definite doubt upon the real assimilation of these 
peoples. Even more significant is the case of the American 
born who do not speak English in the home. In nine 
Swedish homes, six Norwegian and five German, both 
parents were born in the United States, but use the language 
of the old country. Further, in the case of 20 native born 
fathers, and of 64 mothers, English has been dropped (or 
never adopted) as the home language! The comparative 
influence of the husband or the wife in determining the home 
atmosphere is significant in this connection. 

Some cases of individual homes will make the situation 
better understood. A Norwegian husband married an 
American born wife. Altho the husband has lived in this 
country for 35 years, Norwegian is the home language. 
Another case is similar save that the husband has been here 
29 years. To balance this is the case of an American born 
husband, of American born parents, whose Norwegian wife 
has been here for 30 years, but still uses the Norwegian 
language in the home, altho the husband speaks English at 
home. His independence is not shown by the American 
husband whose Swedish wife has been here 34 years, and still 
dominates to such ah extent that Swedish is the language 
spoken by both at home! A Norwegian born husband has 
a Scotch born wife. The husband has lived in the United 



28 



Nationality and School Progress 



States 45 years. Norwegian is the home language! A 
Swiss husband has been here 31 years; his Austrian wife 
has been here 28 years; they speak German in the home. An 
Irishman of Irish parentage married a Minneapolis born 
girl whose father was born in France, and mother in 
Germany. She speaks German in the home, he speaks 
English. Where a Swedish husband has a Norwegian wife, 
there is a natural curiosity as to the outcome. In two cases 
noted, the wife has had to yield and Swedish is spoken at 
home, but in a third case the wife came out victorious and 
they both speak Norwegian. These cases are noted at 
random, and it is not claimed that they are typical, but it 
can not be denied that they point to a serious condition that 
merits definite attention. 



table VIII 

comparative table of nationalities, showing number and percentage of 
foreign born parents who have adopted english as the language 

of the home 



Nationality 


Total Parents 


Number Speak- 
ing English 


Percentage 
Speaking Eng- 
lish 


Bohemian 


36 

77 
396 
802 
201 
126 

63 

86- 
234 
526 

37 


6 

5 

128 

265 

123 

10 

26 

1 

35 

45 

3 


16 6 


Slovak 


6.5 


Norway 


32 3 


Sweden. 


33 


German 


61.2 


Austria 


7 9 


Danes 


41.3 


Finns 


1.1 


Roumanian Jews 

Russian Jews 


15.0 

8 5 


Italians 


8 1 






Average 


21 









Figure one shows this comparison in graphic form. 



Nationality Factors Composing the School Population 



29 



table IX 

persistence of foreign language shown by number and percentages of 

foreign born parents, who retain the foreign tongue as the 

home language, although they have lived in america ten 

years or more 





Total 




Years 


Lived in the 


United 


States 






Nationality 
















Parents 


10-19 inc. 


20-29 




30 


-more 


Total 




No. 


% 


No. 


% 


No. 


% 




Germany 


201 


14 


7.0 


9 




4.4 


22 


10.9 


22.3 


Denmark 


63 


5 


7.9 


7 




11.1 


5 


7.9 


26.9 


Norway 


396 


, 69 


17.4 


48 




12.1 


76 


19.2 


48.7 


Sweden 


802 


93 


11.6 


166 




20.7 


134 


16.7 


49.0 


Austria 


126 


30 


23.8 


23 




18.2 


12 


9.5 


51.5 


Roumanian Jew. 


234 


123 


52.6 


18 




7.7 


5 


2.1 


62.4 


Italians 


37 


5 


13.5 


16 




43.2 


3 


8.1 


64.8 


Bohemians 


36 


6 


16.6 


10 




27.7 


10 


27.7 


72.0 


Slovak 


77 
526 


22 
237 


28.5 
45.0 


20 

145 




25.9 

27.5 


18 
32 


23.3 
6.1 


77.7 


Russian Jews . . . 


78.6 


Finnish 


86 


38 


44.1 


23 




26.7 


14 


16.2 


87 .0 








Aver. 24.4 




Aver 


20.4 




Aver. 13.4 


58.2 



Two Swedes, one German, one Finn, and one Russian have lived in this 
country fifty years, and still speak the home language! Six Norwegians and 
five Swedes have been in this country forty-five years or more, and speak their 
native language in the home. 

These comparisons are shown graphically in figure 2. 

The tables show conclusively that only a fifth of our 
immigrants adopt English as the language of the home, and 
that more than one half will not speak English even after 
they have lived here for ten years or more. More than that, 
there is a tendency to continue the foreign language in the 
home during the second generation, even in the case of 
marriage with one of different nationality. 

The condition is one that certainly needs attention, al- 
though it is a question how far the school can combat the 
tendency, or how far it should. The movement to insist on 
EngHsh as the language of instruction in all schools will cer- 
tainly prove the most effective method of deaUng with the 
situation, unless the laws governing naturalization be 
amended to refuse citizenship to all who are not willing to 



30 



Nationality and School Progress 



Figure I (on left) 
Showing comparative percentages of foreignborn parents who speak 

English in the home 

Neutral zone indicates foreignborn parents who have been in the United 

States less than 10 years, and speak the foreign language in the home 







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Figure 2 (on right) 
Showing comparative persistence of foreign language in homes of foreign- 
born parents who have lived in the United States 10 years or longer 

adopt the language of the country as well as its laws. This 
last expedient would involve insisting that the wife in the 
home learn the new language as well as the husband who 
needs it as an economic necessity. The refusal of many of 
the foreign born women to learn the English language is 
largely responsible for the continuance of the language in 



Nationality Factors Composing the School Population M 

the home. Another potent factor is the influence of pastors 
of the churches, who beheve that the only way in which they 
can- maintain their hold on their flocks is to preach in the 
home tongue. 

If the test of fitness for citizenship were: first, that not 
only the applicant, but also his family, were able to speak 
English; second, that the applicant were able to adduce 
proof that he was in the habit of reading newspapers printed 
in English; and third, that if a church attendant, the 
applicant attended services conducted in English, there 
would be quite definite evidence that he was really assimi- 
lated. Without such evidence, there would remain a serious 
doubt. Thus the movement extends far beyond the scope 
of the school. 



CHAPTER V 

NATIONALITY AND SCHOOL PROGRESS 

The comparison of nationality and school progress will 
be considered under three general heads; (1) its relationship 
to retardation; (2) its relation to acceleration; and (3) its 
relation to school marks. 

1. Retardation. Basis of computation. In a study of 
this sort, where there is a desire merely to make certain 
comparisons between groups of pupils in the same system 
and with no idea of working out a survey of an entire school 
system or of comparing the system with any national or 
sectional standards of retardation, there is really no need 
for conforming to accepted standards, or of meeting any 
uniform requirements. Yet, inasmuch as it was felt that 
the most satisfactory results would follow an application of 
generally accepted methods unless they were discovered to 
fall short of giving a satisfactory basis for comparative 
results, the attempt was made to apply a scientific age-grade 
table which would fit the situation. As the measure of 
normal age for a given grade should be refined as much as 
possible to meet actual conditions, it seemed best to apply 
the standard of Dr. F. P. Bachman as given in his "Problems 
of School Administration, " under the heading of "Objective 
Standards of Measurement," following the general plan of 
the age-grade Table XL, p. 224, where the normal age limit 
of entering the lA Grade is given as 6 to 63^^, of entering 
the IB as 63^2 to 7, and so on. The normal time for com- 
pleting these grades would be lA, 6}/2 up to 7; for IB, 7 up 
to 73^; and so on. These measures are much refined and 
restricted, when the limits of Grade 1 from 6 to 8, as given 

32 



Nationality and School Progress 33 

by Ay res, ^ or from 6 to 7, of Strayer,- are considered. And 
yet when a system is studied which employs half yearly 
promotion, it is evident that such refined measures come to 
meet the exact conditions, and are quite scientific in appli- 
cation. Under the conditions of Minneapolis and St. Paul, 
where six years is the legal minimum age for first entering 
school, and is commonly interpreted as meaning that a child 
who has reached his sixth birthday is thereby qualified to 
enter school, but one who has not completed his fifth year, 
is not qualified, it is evident that the Bachman standard 
would be satisfactory, save only that there should be a 
further refinement made to meet the divisions of the school 
year, so as to give an exact measure for completion of each 
grade. By this is meant a determination of the exact age 
at which a child not quite six years of age in September, 
would be when he enters school at the second semester of the 
year, and the corresponding age which a child who is too 
young to enter in February would reach when he actually 
enters in September. Thus, generally speaking, the term 
opens in the first week in September and the second term, 
the first week in February,^ in the Twin Cities. So a child 
entering the First Beginning grade (known in Minneapolis 
and St. Paul as the IB grade) at the age of six yearsand no 
months, in September, would be six years and five months 
of age when he completed the IB grade by February 1. 

The child entering the IB grade on February 1 would be 
six years and five months old when he completed the grade 
at the close of the year in June. But this latter child would 
be six years and seven months of age before he could enter 



^ "Laggards in Our Schools," p. 38. 

2 "Age-Grade Census of Schools and Colleges," p. 12. 

3 For the school year, 1917-18; in 1918-19 the 3-quarter system was intro- 
duced. 



34 



Nationality and School Progress 



the lA Grade in the following September. Or to put it in 
another way, the child who is five years and eleven months 
of age on February 1, and therefore ineligible to enroll, 
would be six years and six months of age, before he could 
begin the IB Grade legally in September. Therefore, 
to be strictly accurate, one would put the entering age for 
Grade IB in September at from six years to six years and 
seven months, inclusive, and the entering age for Grade IB 
in February as from six years to six years and five months, 
inclusive. This would make the corresponding ages for the 
last six divisions of the elementary grades which were studied 
in the investigation, range as follows: 

Normal age limits for Minneapolis on Sept. 1, of any year: 

Grade 6B, 11 years, no months to 11 years, 7 months, inc. 



6A, 11 




7 




to 12 


7B, 12 









to 12 


7A, 12 




7 




to 13 


8B, 13 









to 13 


8A, 13 




7 




to 14 



mc. 
inc. 
inc. 
inc. 
inc. 



This ''cross section" of the ages which would be normal 
for any one of the six grades shown is of course based on the 
actual ages which would be normal in accordance with the 
the conditions already indicated, and so the apparent over- 
lapping of one month in each successive grade is accounted 
for by the differing times of beginning, i.e., September and 
January. This "cross section" was used as a measure of the 
relative retardation or acceleration of the pupils under 
observation, and as has already been said, it is immaterial 
whether it is scientific or not, in view of the fact that all that 
was sought was some agency for determining a rational 
dividing line for comparative purposes. The result proved 
that it was a satisfactory line for the Minneapolis children, 
for out of 2070 cases examined, 854 retardates and 678 
accelerates were found. But when the same scale was 



Nationality and School Progress 35 

applied to the 405 St. Paul cases available, it was found that 
there would be an undue number of retardates and practically 
no accelerates! Therefore, while a uniform scale might be 
of value for comparative studies of the total number of 
schools under consideration, yet to draw conclusions con- 
cerning groups of nationalities under supposedly constant 
conditions there must be approximately the same number 
of accelerates as of retardates; otherwise a relative com- 
parison of the advanced with the retarded pupils or groups 
would be impossible. So a new basis was sought for the 
St. Paul schools. Obviously the simplest way out was to 
take the median age of each grade, and with this as a basis, 
work out a table with the same relative inclusive limits as 
for Minneapolis. This was done, with the following results: 

Normal age limits for St. Paul on Sept. 1 of any year, based on median ages 
for Grades vi, vn, viii, in three schools. 

Grade 6B, 11 years, 6 months to 12 years, 1 month, inc. 



6A, 12 




1 




to 12 




6 


" inc. 


7B, 12 




6 




to 13 




1 


" inc. 


7A, 13 




1 




to 13 




6 


" inc. 


8B, 13 




6 




to 14 




1 


" inc. 


8A, 14 




1 




to 14 




6 


" inc. 



Trying this table on the 405 cases, there were found 145 
retardates and 166 accelerates — a slightly different per- 
centage from the Minneapolis group, but near enough to be 
satisfactory for group comparisons. In the case of each 
city, there was a group of 25% in the "normal age" group, 
as compared with 75% who were in the retarded-accelerated 
group. And for the total number of cases from both cities, 
2475, the total retardates were 999 and the total accelerates, 
834. 

1. Study of the Retardates by Nationality Groups. The 
retarded pupils were grouped under the 25 heads indi- 
cated in the division into nationalities according to the 



36 



Nationality and School Progress 



predominance of nationality as shown by countries of birth 
of grandparents, and summarized in Tables v and vi. The 
results are shown in Table x following: 



table X 
distribution of retardation according to nationality groups 



Group 


Nation 


Total 
Cases 


Number 
Retarded - 


Percent 
Retarded 


1 
2 
3 
4 


U. S 

Grt. Brit 

Germany 

Norway 


350 

165 

177 

215 

420 

129 

99 

336 

38 

45 

22 

18 


112 
56 
76 

107 

173 
63 
24 

153 
21 
22 
11 
11 


32.0 
35.1 
42.9 
49.7 


5 


Sweden 


41.2 


6 

7 
8 
9 


Austria-Hungary. 
Roumanian Jew. . 

Russian Jew 

Poland 


48.8 
24.2 
45.5 

55.2 


10 


Finland 


48.8 


11 
12 


Denmark 

Italy 


50.0 
61.1 










Total 


2,014 


831 


Ave. 41.2 
Median 47.2 



Nationality and School Progress 



37 



TABLE XI 



DISTRIBUTION OF RETARDATION ACCORDING TO NATIONALITY GROUPS 
SHOWING RETARDATION OF "EQUAL MIXTURES" 



Group 
No. 


Nations 


Total 
Cases 


Number 
Retarded 


Percent 
Retarded 


13 
14 


U. S. & Great Brit.... 
Germany 


91 
64 
20 

25 
24 
12 
14 
15 
78 
14 

16 
10 


38 

21 

6 

7 
. 7 
7 
6 
4 
26 
6 

3 

7 


41.7 
31.2 


15 


Norway 


30 


16 


Sweden 


28 


17 

18 


Great Brit. & Germany 
Norway 


29.1 

58.3 


19 
20 


Germany & Norway . . 
Sweden 


42.8 
26.6 


21 

22 


Norway & Sweden .... 
Denmark 


35.9 
42.8 


23 


Roumanian & Russian 
Tew 


18.7 


24 


Negro 


70.0 




Total 






383 


140 


Ave. 36.8 
Median 33.6 



The Negroes are included in this group on account of the fact that the cases 
observed all seemed to be of mixed blood. 



38 



Nationality and School Progress 



2. Acceleration. It will be readily seen that there are 
definite differences in the percentage of retardation in the 
various groups. But it is desirable to investigate the 
accelerates in the same way, before coming to any conclusions, 
for unless the groups which stand well in respect to retarda- 
tion also stand above the average in acceleration, no con- 
clusions can be drawn. So a similar comparison of pupils 
accelerated follows: 



T.-IBLE XII 
DISTRIBUTION OF ACCELERATION ACCORDING TO NATIONALITY GROUPS 



Group 


Nation 


Total 
Cases 


Number 
Accelerates 


Percent 
Accelerates 


1 

2 
3 
4 

5 


U. S 

Great Britain 

Germany 

Norway. 

Sweden. ........ 


350 
165 

177 

215 

420 

129 

99 

336 

38 

45 

22 

18 


136 

551 

67 

55 

145 

27 

51 

102 

5 

15 
9 
6 


38.8 
30.9 

37.8 
25.6 
34 5 


6 

7 
8 
9 


Austro-Hungary . 
Roumanian Jew. 

Russian Jew 

Poland 


20.9 
51.5 
30.3 
13.2 


10 


Finland 


Z2) 3 


11 
12 


Denmark 

Italy 


40.9 

?)3 3 










Total 


2,014 


669 


33.2 
Median 33.3 



Nationality and School Progress 



39 



TABLE XIII 

DISTRIBUTION OF ACCELERATION .ACCORDING TO NATIONAL GROUPS, 
SHOWING ACCELERATION OF "eOUAL MIXTURES" 



Group 


Nations 


Total 

Cases 


Number 
Accelerates 


Percent 
Accelerates 


13 
14 


U. S. & Great Brit.... 
Germanv 


91 
64 
20 

25 

24 
12 
14 
15 

78 
14 

16 
10 


38 

20 

9 

11 

11 
3 
6 
8 

30 
4 

6 

3 


41.7 
31.2 


15 
16 


Norway 

Sweden 


45.0 
44.0 


17 


Great Britain & Ger 
many 


45.8 


18 


Norv\^ay 


25.0 


19 

20 


Germany & Norway. . 
Sweden 


42.8 
53.3 


21 

22 


Norway & Sweden .... 
Denmark 


38.4 
28.5 


23 


Roumanian & Russian 
Tew 


37.5 


24 


Negroes 

Total 


30.0 




383 


149 


38.9 






Median 40 . 1 



In analyzing these tables there will be noted at once a 
very decided difference in range between the groups. Look- 
ing first at the pure national groups, a range of from 24.2% 
to 61.1% is noted in the retardates, and a range of 13.2% 
to 51.5% in the accelerates. The expected rule of "low 
retardation, high acceleration," does not hold entirely, 
however. With so large a range and so small a number of 
groups, neither the median nor average is a very satisfactory 
measure. However, we see Roumania standing first in 
each list, with only 24.2% retardates, and 51.5% accelerates. 
The United States is second in low retardation, and third 
in high acceleration. Great Britain is third in retardation, 



40 



Nationality and School Progress 



but eighth in acceleration. Sweden is fourth in retards, 
and fifth in accelerates, and Germany interchanges with her, 
being fifth in retards, and fourth in accelerates. Poland, 
eleventh in retardates, is twelfth in accelerates, but Italy, 
twelfth in retards, is sixth in accelerates, and Denmark, 
tenth in retards, is second in acceleration. 

Figure 3 (on left) 
Relative retardation of various national groups by percentages of number 
retarded to whole number in the group 
Neutral zone shows percentage normal in age-grade distribution 



^ 


tx/ 


/\/\j 


T 


P> 


SL 












'?PI; 


IzicxJu 


iL\kZ* 


iw 


. 




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y-^.l 












































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7. 


S, 




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c 


u 










< 


xA.i 


X 










% 




































n 


r 




Q 


r" 


L-i 


ir 


Lt. 




36 


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9, 


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e> 


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1 




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p\ 


h.>T\ y-y 


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Figure 4 (on right) 
Relative acceleration of various national groups, by percentages 



Nationality and School Progress 41 

A study of the equally mixed groups gives us some idea 
of the effect of intermarriage. The alliance of Norwegians 
and Swedes produces a distinctly higher percentage of 
accelerates and lower percentage of retardates than in either 
nationality when pure. The Scandinavians, also, seem to 
improve when allied with Americans. The Russian Jews 
also improve as a result of marriage with the Roumanians, 
and the latter improve in percentage of retardation. The 
Norwegian Danish alliance is advantageous to the former, 
but not so happy for the latter. In fact, the only Scandi- 
navian alliance which does not show a distinct gain is that 
ot the Norwegians with the United Kingdom. Americans 
and Germans do not show a marked tendency in either 
direction, and the same may be said of the Great Britain 
group. 

All in all, there is enough difference between groups to add 
weight to the contention that there is a difference in the 
tendency of nationalities to vary in the matter of retardation. 
Further comment will be reserved until the comparison on a 
basis of school marks. 

3. Comparison of national groups on a basis of school marks. 
The method of procedure in securing and evaluating the 
school marks is necessarily to be explained before taking up 
the results of the comparisons of nationality groups. 

The investigation was made during the second semester 
of the school year, and it was therefore possible to get access 
to the teachers' registers giving the records of each pupil 
in each subject for the semester just closed, and also his 
final promotion mark, or his record of non-promotion. There- 
fore this record was made the basis of the comparison. The 
marks were transferred directly from the teacher's registers, 
and thus had the advantage of being taken from the original 
entries rather than from transcripts filed in the principal's 
office, or in a central office. This made for accuracy, and 



42 ■ Nationality and School Progress 

made it possible to consult teachers and principal about 
doubtful cases or about seeming inconsistencies or incon- 
gruities. 

The marks were recorded presumably on a monthly basis, 
but there was no uniform ruling in the schools as to the 
number of entries required for the semester. Thus some 
of the schools entered three marks in each subject for the 
semester, some four and .some five. The marks were 
designated by letters, except in the case of two St. Paul 
schools. In Minneapolis the symbols were: A, highest, 
Bj'very good, C, medium, D, poor, F, failure. In a few 
cases a grade of E was given, meaning ^'conditional." As 
the departmental system was used in the last three grades 
in most of the schools, in many cases no average grade for 
the semester was given, but the pupil was promoted by 
subject. Accordingly it became necessary to work out an 
index of comparison, that each pupil might be ranked both 
in individual subjects, and in an average of all subjects. A 
basis was sought which might admit of a definite ranking 
whereby a fine enough unit might be used to prevent an 
undue number of "ties," and after considerable experimenta- 
tion, the following plan was adopted: 

In most cases, marks were entered three times in each 
subject for the semester. If the three marks were all ''A," 
thus, A-A-A, the combination was given an arbitrary value 
of 10, on a numerical basis. If the mark for one month was 
''B," one point was deducted. Thus the combinations 
A-A-B, A-B-A, B-A-A, were given a value of 9. In like 
manner the combinations A-B-B, B-A-B, B-B-A, A-A-C, 
A-C-A, C-A-A-, were evaluated at 8. B-B-B, A-B-C, 
C-B-A, C-A-B, A-C-B, B-A-C, were given the value 7, and 
so on for all possible combinations, down to F-F-F, which 
was evaluated 0. A similar value was worked out for 
schools which gave four and five marks per subject during 



Nationality and School Progress 43 

• 

the semester. The result was that it was possible to rank 
pupils in each grade and school so that there was surprisingly 
little duplication of grades, or ''tieing," even in specific sub- 
jects, and still less in the averages, in any school. The 
subjects in which there was the greatest tendency to simi- 
larity in the grades assigned were the motor activities, manual 
training, domestic science, singing, drawing and penman- 
ship. In many schools there was but little attempt made 
at a refinement of grading, or of ranking the pupils in these 
subjects. When the school marks of the children were 
taken from the teachers' registers, the expectation was that 
valid comparisons could be made between the progress of 
children in the so-called "formal" subjects of the course, 
and the newer ^'^motor activity" group. Thus, it was 
planned to discover what differences, if any, existed in the 
ability to excel in arithmetic, and to do well in drawing or 
in manual training. But when the marks given in the 
latter groups were studied, it was found that so little atten- 
tion was paid to discrimination between pupils in the 
assigning of marks, that the recorded scale meant almost 
nothing in the way of discriminating the achievement of the 
child. For example, one class of thirty- three girls in cooking 
in the Seventh B grade of School No. 8 were, with five 
exceptions, given the grade of ''7" on a scale of ten, for the 
semester mark. This condition was duplicated in the 
various schools in the subjects of penmanship, manual train- 
ing, music, drawing and domestic science. In these subjects, 
the school mark merely indicates the fact of the pupil's 
maintaining an average grade of work which justifies his 
promotion or non-promotion, without any very serious 
attempt to differentiate between abilities or achievements 
of pupils. The result of this unsatisfactory ranking of pupils 
was the complete abandonment of the projected study of 
relationships between the two differing types of school 



44 Nationality and School Progress 

« 
subjects, even though the "content" subjects were graded 
in a reasonably satisfactory way, as contrasted with the 
"motor" subjects. 

The marks for boys and girls were listed separately in all 
schools, and they were kept separate throughout the investi- 
gation. Medians and 25 and 75 percentiles were then 
calculated for the entire number studied in both Minneapolis 
and St. Paul, for the entire number of schools in each city, 
and for each grade separately, both for the city at large, and 
for the individual school and grade, for boys and girls 
separately. This made it possible to study the individual 
schools in relation to the city at large, and the results of this 
study gave an interesting object lesson of the value of such 
a study to a superintendent or supervisor, and as such is 
worthy to be interpolated here as a contribution to the 
literature of administration, even tho not strictly pertinent 
to the findings of this investigation. 

In averaging the grades of the individual, it was found 
that sufficiently accurate results were obtained by carrying 
the computation to one decimal place only. So in listing 
the various grades for comparative purposes, this was the 
method of distribution: 10.0, 9.9, 9.8, 9.7, and so on. For 
the Minneapolis schools studied, the range of averages 
attained by any one pupil in all his subjects ranged from 
10.0, the highest, made by two girls, out of a total of 2076 
pupils (boys and girls) studied, down to 0.4, made by three 
boys out of the 2076 pupils. Within this range of 97 units, 
there were only four measures which had no cases to be listed. 
It is impracticable to show the distribution for the entire 97, 
so a condensed table of distribution and accompanying 
curve is here given in Table xiv and Figure 5. In St. Paul, 
on the other hand, the 409 cases listed gave a range of from 
9.3 down to 6.7. It will thus be noted that there was a 
much less discriminating series of grades collected in the 



Nationality and School Progress 



45 



latter city than the former. In view of the fact that there 
was a more general tendency to retardation in the schools 
studied in St. Paul than in Minneapolis, this is a surprising 
record. The distribution of St. Paul grades is shown in 



Table xv and in Figure 6. 



table XIV 



V)ISTREBUTION OF AVERAGE MARKS MADE BY 2,076 PUPILS IN GRADES 
6b TO 8a, INCLUSIVE, IN 10 MINNEAPOLIS SCHOOLS, IN ALL STUDIES 

(subjects) 



Average IMark 


Boys 


Girls 


Total Cases 


9.6-10.0 





16 


16 


9.1- 9.5 


7 


44 


51 


8.6- 9.0 


22 


54 


76 


8.1- 8.5 


43 


91 


134 


7.6- 8.0 


57 


120 


177 


7.1- 7.5 


61 


95 


156 


6.6- 7.0 


96 


147 


243 


6.1- 6.5 


99 


116 


215 


5.6- 6.0 


110 


104 


214 


5.1- 5.5 


107 


92 


199 


4.6- 5.0 


101 


52 


153 


4.1- 4.5 


101 


45 


146 


3.6- 4.0 


68 


28 


96 


3.1- 3.5 


55 


24 


79 


2.6- 3.0 


32 


15 


47 


2.1- 2.5 


25 


10 


35 


1.6- 2.0 


14 


5 


19 


1.1- 1.5 


10 





10 


0.6- 1.0 


4 


2 


6 


0.4- 0.5 


4 





4 


Total 


1,016 


1,060 


2,076 



46 



Nationality and School Progress 



Figure 5 
Distribution of school marks, 10 schools of Minneapolis, 2076 cases 
Cases : 



250 
240 
230 
220 
210 

200 

190 
180 

170 
160 
150 
140 
130 
120 
110 
100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 
40 

30 

20 

10 



0.4 0.6 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 4.1 4.6 5.1 5.6 6.1 6.6 7.1 7.6 8.1 8.6 9.1 9.6 
Range: to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to 
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 

The medians for boys, girls, and total number of students 
in all grades, and the medians in each grade, as well as the 
percentile marks, are shown in Tables xvi and xvii. The 
determination of these percentiles makes it possible to 
compare each school and grade with the entire group studied, 
and reveals any tendencies on the part of any school or 
teacher to grade too far above or below the general tendency 
for the group. Such a study is rarely made by superinten- 



B__| 

— — ^— 

. 

.. — ^ ^ 

I 



Nationality and School Progress 



47 



TABLE XV 

DISTRIBUTION OF AVERAGE MARKS MADE BY 409 PUPILS IN THREE 
ST. PAUL SCHOOLS 



Average Mark 


Boys 


Girls 


Total Cases 


9.1-9.3 


3 


6 


9 


8.6-9.0 


17 


60 


77 . 


8.1-8.5 


59 


88 


147 


7.6-8.0 


84 


61 


145 


7.1-7.5 


22 


5 


27 


6.7-7.0 


3 


1 


4 


Total 


188 


221 


409 







Figure 6 
Distribution of school marks, 3 schools of St. Paul, 409 cases 
Cases: 



150 
140 
130 
120 

110 
100 
90 
80 
70 
60 

50 
40 
30 
20 

10 









— r- 














— 










"" 


> 


± 



6.7 7.17.6 8.18.6 8.1 

to to to to to to Range 

7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.3 



dents, and where made will be a valuable aid in evaluating 
the work of individual schools. For this study, it was 



48 



Nationality and School Progress 



valuable in determining the basis on which a comparison of 
marks should be made; — whether the comparison should be 
made on a basis of a quartile classification of the pupils 
studied with reference to the quartiles of the entire city 
as a whole, by grades, or to a comparison of their quartile 



TABLE XVI 



Grade 


25 Percentile 


Median 


75 Percentile 




Boys 


Girls 


Total 


Boys 


Girls 


Total 


Boys 


Girls 


Total 


8-A 
8-B 
7-A 
7-B 
6-A 
6-B 
All Grades 


7.0 
6.2 
6.7 
6.6 
6.5 
7.0 
6.7 


7.7 
7.7 
7.8 
7.8 
7.5 
7.9 
7.7 


7.4 
7.2 
7.5 
7.4 
7.0 
7.6 
7.4 


5.9 

4.8 
5.7 
5.5 
5.4 
6.0 
5.5 


6.8 
6.4 
6.7 
6.9 
6.2 
6.9 
6.7 


6.5 
5.7 
6.3 
6.3 
5.7 
6.5 
6.1 


4.7 
3.7 
4.5 
4.4 
4.4 
4.4 
4.7 


5.9 

5.2 
5.8 
5.9 
5.0 
5.2 
5.9 


5.2 
4.4 
5.0 
5.1 
4.7 
4.9 
5.2 



percentiles and medians OE marks made in ten schools of MINNEAPOLIS, 
AND IN EACH GRADE SEPARATELY, FOR BOTH BOYS AND GIRLS 

TABLE XVII 



Grade 


25 Percentile 


Median 


75 Percentile 




Boys 


Girls 


Total 


Boys 


Girls 


Total 


Boys 


Girls 


Total 


8-A 


8.6 


8.6 


8.6 


8.2 


8.4 


8.3 


7.9 


8.2 


8.0 


8-B 


8.2 


8.7 


8.5 


8.0 


8.3 


8.2 


7.7- 


8.0 


7.9 


7-A 


8.4 


8.8 


8.6 


8.1 


8.4 


8.3 


7.8 


8.1 


8.0 


7-B 


8.3 


8.5 


8.4 


8.2 


8.2 


8.2 


7.9 


7.8 


7.8 


6-A 


7.9 


8.6 


8.2 


7.7 


8.2 


8.0 


7.4 


8.0 


7.7 


6-B 


8.0 


8.3 


8.2 


7.8 


8.0 


7.9 


7.6 


7.9 


7.7 


All Grades 


8.3 


8.6 


8.5 


8.0 


8.3 


8.1 


7.7 


8.0 


7.9 



PERCENTILES AND MEDIANS OF MARKS MADE IN THREE SCHOOLS OF ST. PAUL, AND 
IN EACH GRADE OF THE THREE SCHOOLS BY BOTH BOYS AND GIRLS 



Nationality and School Progress 49 

standing in the grade comprising their school fellows in their 
own school, without reference to the total number of groups. 
If there be any great deviations from the group medians, it 
is evident that there can be no valid comparisons based on 
the group medians — as is immediately seen on comparing 
Tables xvi and xvii, p. 48, which give St. Paul 75 percentiles 
as higher than Minneapolis 25 percentiles! It is quite 
evident that the pupils of Minneapolis and St. Paul can not 
be considered as being on an equal basis as regards marks. 

Table xviii page 50 gives the situation in Minneapolis, 
in the ten schools under consideration. It is an interesting 
situation, from the administrative standpoint. Schools 
deviating so widely from the median as No. 1, 2, 8, 9, 
evidently need some attention. It may be that there is 
quite a satisfactory explanation for the conditions indicated, 
but the principals of these schools are at least put on the 
defensive. It is quite certain that comparisons, based on 
such figures as we have here, are indispensable to the super- 
intendent and are easily compiled in most cases, yet are 
rarely made an instrument of supervision. For the purpose 
of the present investigation the table is equally important. 
It is conclusive in demonstrating that the medians for 
the entire group can not be used for a basis of our comparison, 
as the standard of school No. 1 is so far removed from that 
of school No. 9 that they might as well be located a thousand 
miles apart as within the limits of the same city. Altho the 
table does not show this, it is the fact that the highest 
ranking pupil in every grade of school No. 9, except the 6A 
and 6B girls, is given a mark lower than the median pupil 
in the corresponding grade of school No. 1. In the light 
of conditions such as these, for this study the pupils in each 
school were ranked on a basis of their standing in their own 
class, without reference to the medians of any other school, 
or of the group. The marks of the boys and the girls were 



50 



Nationality and School Progress 



kept separate in each grade. Each grade in each school 
was, then, divided into quartiles and a quartile rank given to 
each pupil according to this grouping. In this way, the 
pupil was ranked according to his own environment, and 
his relative position to his school mates was a much more 
natural one, than if he were compared with pupils in schools 
far removed from his own, either geographically or admin- 
istratively. The only objection to this arrangement came 



table XVIII 



School 


8-A 
B. G. 


8-B 
B. G. 


7-A 
B. G. 


7-B 
B. G. 


6-A 
B. G. 


6-B 
B. G. 


All 
B. G. 


Total 


No. 1 
2 

*3-10 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 


7.4 8.2 
7.8 6.8 
6.0 6.7 
5.2 6.5 
6.2 6.7 

5.4 7.2 
5.7 6.7 
5.2 6.4 

4.5 5.7 


7.4 8.6 

5.5 8.4 
4.7 6.7 
5.7 6.1 
5.1 6.4 

4.3 6.2 

5.4 6.7 
4.3 6.1 
3.0 4.5 


6.5 8.2 

6.5 6.6 

6.6 7.6 
5.9 6.7 
5.2 6.4 
5.6 7.0 
4.8 5.8 
4.5 5.5 
S.O 3.1 


6.5 8.4 
6.4 7.0 

6.3 7.0 

6.4 6.7 
4.8 6.5 
4.7 6.3 
4.7 5.3 
5.4 6.9 
4.4 6.7 


6.6 6.8 

6.7 7.8 
6.2 6.5 

5.6 6.7 
5.5 7.6 

4.7 7.5 
4.9 5.3 
5.0 3.5 
3.7 5.3 


7.0 7.7 

7.8 7.3 
6.3 7.7 
7.0 7.7 
7.5 6.4 

3.7 7.2 
5.2 5.3 
5.2 5.7 

4.8 5.2 


6.8 8.0 

6.8 7.3 
6.0 7.0 

6.0 6.7 
5.7 6.7 
4.7 6.9 

5.1 5.9 

4.9 5.7 
5.9 5.1 


7.4 
7.1 
6.5 
6.4 
6.2 
. 5.8 
5.5 
5.3 
4.5 



DISTRIBUTION OF MEDIAN MARKS FOR TEN MINNEAPOLIS SCHOOLS, SHOWING 
MEDIANS FOR BOYS AND FOR GIRLS OF EACH GRADE, AND FOR EACH 

SCHOOL 



The range of medians for all grades is 


from 4 . 5 


to 7.4. 




for all boys, is 3.9 to 6.8. 






for all girls, is 5 


.1 to 8.0 




8-A 


boys 4 . 5 to 7 . 8 


girls 


5.7to8.2 


8-B 


3.0 to 7.4 




4.5 to 8.6 


7-A 


3.0 to 6.6 




3.1 to8.2 


7-B 


4.4 to 6.5 




5.3to8.4 


6-A 


3.7 to 6.7 




3.5 to 7.8 


6-B 


3.7 to 7.8 




5.2to7.7 



*Schools 3 and 10 are combined under one principal. 



Nationality and School Progress 51 

in the case of school No. 9, which was predominantly 
Russian Jewish in complexion, so that there was not as much 
meaning to the rankings as would have been the case with 
a higher admixture of other nationalities. The result 
was rather a ranking of a group of Russian Jews among 
themselves, than a comparison with other nations. Of 
course, this would not materially affect the final figures for 
other nationalities, for it would simply swell the number of 
Russians in each quartile, without perceptibly affecting the 
summary. 

It will, therefore, be understood that the comparisons 
following are based upon the quartile distribution of the 
pupils in their respective schools and grades, without refer- 
ence to a comparison of buildings or medians based on totals 
from the entire group. 

The same groupings of nationalities are used as in the 
retardates and accelerates, but the number of cases treated 
will not correspond, in most groups being less. The reason 
is that there were a number of pupils who, on account of 
having just moved to the city, or having just changed 
schools, had not had marks given them in the school under 
question, and it was felt that the marks brought from the 
former school would not be valuable as a basis for com- 
parison with the present classmates of the child; the reason 
for this is clear from the discussion of range of marks between 
different schools even in the same system. In a few cases 
it was possible to locate some pupils for marking who had not 
given their ages, or whose ages had to be thrown out from 
the computation of retardates on account of inexplicable 
discrepancies. For these reasons, in two of the smaller^ 
groups, the number for whom marks are given was one or 
two greater than in the preceding tables. Altogether, 
however, only 2204 cases could be listed, as against 2397 
retardates. 



52 



Nationality and School Progress 



TABLE XIX 



Group 


Nation 


1st QUAR- 
TILE 


2d QuAR- 

TILE 


3d QuAR- 

TILE 


4th QuAR- 

TILE 


Total 
Cases 




No. 


% 


No. 


% 


No. 


% 


No. 


% 




1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

. 7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


United States 

Great Britain 

Germany. . . . 

Norway ..... 

Sweden. . . . . 

Austria-Hun- 
gary 

Roumanian 
Jew... . . . . 

Russian Jew . 

Poland 

Finland 

Denmark. . . . 

Italy... 

Totals. . . . 
Medians. . . 


94 

38 
31 
50 
98 

29 

2C 

75 
9 

7 
4 

5 


30.2 
26.4 
18.7 
25.0 
24.4 

26.1 

22.5 
24.5 
33.3 
14.0 
23.5 
26.3 


75 
41 
54 
46 
100 

30 

26 

78 

6 

16 

5 
3 


24.1 

28.5 
32.5 
23.0 

24.8 

27.0 

29.2 

25.5 
22.2 
32.0 
29.4 

15.8 


78 
34 
39 
60 
110 

28 

20 

78 

6 

15 

3 
5 


25.1 
23.6 
23.5 
30.0 

27.3 

25.2 

22.5 
25.5 
22.2 
30.0 
17. '7 
26.3 


64 
31 
42 
44 
94 

24 

23 

75 

6 

12 

5 

6 


20.6 
21.5 
25.3 
22.0 
23.4 

21.7 

25.8 
24.5 
22.2 
24.0 
29.4 
31.6 


311 
144 
166 
200 
402 

HI 

89 
306 
27 
50 
17 
19 




460 


24.8 


480 


26.2 


476 


.25.1 


426 


23.7 


1,842 



DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOL MARKS BY QUARTILES AMONG NATIONALITY GROUPS, 

FOLLOWING THE NATIONALITY GROUPS BASED ON BIRTHPLACE OF 

GRANDPARENTS 

The distribution according to the highest, second, third 
and lowest quartiles of school marks is given in Table xix. 
It is understood, of course, that these rankings are those 
made in an average of all subjects carried. 

By way of analysis, two additional tables are given show- 
ing the relation of the groups in terms of the highest quartile, 
and of the lowest quartile, as was done for retardates and 
accelerates. 

Before accepting these figures as final, it must be pointed 
out that the most serious factor leading to possible error, 



Nationality and School Progress 



53 



TABLE XX 



Group 


Nation 


Total 

Cases 


QUARTILE I 


QUARTILE IV 


Cases 


.'0 


Cases 


/o 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 


United States . . . 
Great Britain . . . 

Germany 

Norway 

Sweden 

Austro-Hungary. 
Roumanian Jew . 
Russian Jew .... 
Polish 


311 
144 
166 
200 
402 
111 

89 
306 

27 
• 50 

17 

19 


94 

38 

31 

50 

98 

29 

20 

75 

9 

7 

4 

5 


30.2 
26.4 
18.7 
25.0 
24.4 
26.1 
22.5 
24.5 
33.3 
14.0 
23.5 
26.3 


64 

31 

42 

44 

94 

24 

23 

75 

6 

12 

5 

6 


20.6 

21.5 

25.3 

22.0 ' 

23.4 

21.7 

25.8 

24.5 

22.2 


10 
11 
12 


Finland 

Denmark 

Italy 


24.0 
29.4 
31.6 












Medians 


24.8 


23.7 













DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOL MARKS, SHOWING RELATION TO MEDIANS IN FIRST AND 

FOURTH QUARTILES 

aside from the inequality of the marking system already 
noted, is the fact that the nationalities are not distributed 
equally in the various buildings. Even where there is a 
reasonably close distribution between any two given schools, 
there is not the same uniformity between the classes within 
the schools. So this gives rise to a suspicion that the 
results just tabulated, while appearing conclusive, are 
really masking the real situation. Thus, it has already 
been pointed out that the Grant School has so large a 
percentage of Russian Jews enrolled, that the comparisons 
are not between the Russians and the other nationalities, 
but between the Russians themselves, and hence are not 
significant. If this same situation, while apparently not 
acute in other buildings, yet exists in part, it may be that 
there is no justification for evaluating the groups on the 



54 



Nationality and School Progress 



quartile plan just adopted. By way of testing the situation, 
two devices were adopted: 

a. Typical comparisons were worked out for schools in 
which the number of pupils enrolled belonging to the larger 

Figure 8 (above) 
Relative standing of nationality groups, based on lowest quartile of school 

marks 

20.6% 21.5 21.7 22.0 24.5 23.4 25.8 25.3 24.0 



' L 






^"" " 




■ ^ 


J 






■ % 


-^^- 


ji 


a 


i 


A 


' (^ 




i 


^> ^3 


J 


3 * 


i-i 






^~r 




J 


-<- ■* 


■\ 


> 


"> 


i 

■* 


1 


► Zi- 


t 


I- 


.s <.5 


A 


4 


\=^ 


5 


^ 


V 


\3 


, 








2* 




- 65 


, ^T 
















J ■■^■■ 


■J 












































































































































i 


















1 
1 


i 
















1 


1 




o 
















^r — 
.4 


-— «-_ 
















■^^ .^ 


^ 




X 






- 








J 


!? 


ty 




d 


— r 


- 




r 


^i 

> 


>-•> 


-f 


^^ 


Y 




- ^r 


' j.^ 


^ 


n 


7 


S 


^ 


" \ 


J 5.. 


:^^ . 


:^ 


:j 


> 




r§ 


. «- 


*P ^^3 


1 ^^ 




\^C 


. v-'s 


fii 


•^a 


H- 



30.2% 26.4 26.1 25.0 24.5 24.4 22.5 18.7 14.0 

Figure 7 (below) 
Relative standing of nationality groups, based on highest quartile of school 

marks 



Nation.vlity and School Progress 



55 



groups was sufficient to give comparisons between buildings. 
Such groups appearing most widely distributed were the 
American, Norwegian, and Swedish. In seven schools, it 
was possible to draw comparisons between the American 
and Swedish groups, and the ' conclusions are shown in 
Table xxi. It will be seen in this table that the higher 
standing of the American group shown in the combined 
table is borne out by the results of five of the seven schools, 
while in two, there is a slight superiority of the Swedish, so 
far as the highest quartile is concerned; in case of the lowest 
quartile, the American group excels in the same number 
as in the first. Thus the general superiority of the American 
group would be substantiated in so far as the Sw^edish group 
is concerned, based on the quartiles. 

TABLE XXI 

COitP.AR.\TIVE PERCENTAGES OF GROLT 1 (aMERIC.Ax) AND GROLT> 5 (sWEDISh) 

PLTILS IX EACH SCHOLARSHIP QL'.ARTILE IX THE SE\'EX SCHOOLS IN 

WHICH E.A.CH GROLT IS REPRESENTED BY 15 OR MORE CASES 



School 


Group 


No. 

Cases 


Quartiles 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


Adams 

Bryant 


1 

5 
1 
5 
1 
5 
1 
5 
1 
5 
1 
5 


16 
64 
73 
36 
104 
19 
15 
67 
26 
25 
29 
58 


25.0 
29.7 
32.9 
30.6 
30.9 
31.6 
26.7 
16.4 
42.3 
28.0 
34.5 
13.8 


31.3 
21.9 
20.6 
19.4 
19.1 
15.8 
40.0 
34.3 
26.9 
24.0 
24.2 
25.9 


12.5 
28.1 
28.7 
13.9 
27.6 
31.5 
13.3 
26.9 
15.4 
28.0 
20.7 
29.3 


31.2 
20.3 
17 8 


Calhoun 

Clay- Jackson . . . 

Motley 

Prescott 


36.1 
22.4 
21.1 
20.0 
22.4 
15.4 
20.0 
20.6 
31.0 



56 



Nationality and School Progress 



Table xxii shows a similar comparison for the Norwegian 
and Swedish groups. For these groups it was possible 
to make adequate comparisons in only six schools. In 
three of these, the Swedes have the advantage, and in the 
other three, the Norwegians. The percentages are widely 
variant in the different schools, and when it is attempted 
to make an evaluation between the schools, it is found that 
there is a. slight tendency in favor of the Norwegians, but so 
slight that the percentage may be disregarded, and the same 
conclusion drawn as in Table xx, namely, that there is 
practically no difference between the two groups. Thus 
again the data of Table xx seemed to be borne out by the 
second test. It was impossible to work out similar tables 
for other nationalities, so a further method was employed; — 
b. In each school giving enough members of the groups 
already considered, as well as the Russian Jewish group, the 

table xxii 
comparative percentages of group 4 (Norwegian) and group 5 (swedish) 

PUPILS IN EACH scholarship QUARTILE IN THE SIX SCHOOLS IN WHICH 
EACH SCHOOL IS REPRESENTED BY 14 OR MORE CASES 





Group 


No. 

Cases 


QUARTILES 


i^LMOOL 


I 


IT 


III 


IV 


Adams 

Calhoun 

Clay- Jackson . . . 

Harrison 

HolLmd 


4 

5 
4 
5 
4 
5 
4 
5 
4 
5 


36 
64 
14 
19 
46 
67 
15 
3^ 
31 
62 


16.7 
29.7 
21.4 
31.6 
32.6 
16.4 
33.3 
24.3 
12.9 
29.0 


30.6 
21.9 
14.3 
15.8 
28.2 
34.3 
20.0 
21.2 
25.8 
24.2 


25.0 
28.1 
35.7 
31.5 
21.8 
26.9 
26.7 
27.3 
25.8 
29.0 


27.7 
20.3 
28.6 
21.1 
17.4 
22.4 
20.0 
27.2 
35.5 
17.8 



Nationality and School Progress 



57 



TABLE XXIII 
TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER AND PERCENTAGES OF VARIOUS NATIONALITY 
GROUPS DOING AS WELL OR BETTER THAN THE MEDIAN AMERICAN 
CHILD IN CERTAIN SCHOOLS 





Nationality Groups 


School 


American 


Swedish 


Norwegian 


Russian Jew 




Cases 


Med. 


Cases 


No. 


% 


Cases 


No. 


% 


Cases 


No. 


% 


Adams 

Bryant 

CalVioiin 


15 
71 
97 

15 
13 
28 
29 
1.^ 


5.3* 

7.2 

5.5 

6.7 
6.4 
7.5 
6.6 
8 1 


63 
35 
19 

66 

?>?> 
25 
57 

70 


35 
17 

8 

28 

19 

6 

20 

19 


.55 
.49 
.42 

.42 
.57 
.24 
.35 
.60 

45 


35 
13 
14 

48 
15 
12 
11 


16 
8 

5 

25 
8 
4 
3 


.45 
.62 
.36 

.52 
.53 
.?>?> 
.27 


12 


5 


.42 








Clay- 
Jackson .... 
Harrison. . . 
Motley 

Prpcpott 








40 


17 


.42 








Siblev 








Average 


ej . X , ^^ , .^_ 






44 






.42 


Average wi^'^'^"^' ^iWpv 




43 














Average o: 


■ Adam; 


I and 


Harrison . . . 


.56 


.49 







average mark of all the American group enrolled in this 
school was taken. Then it was determined what percentage 
of the other nationality groups named made as high marks 
as the median American child in the school under con- 
sideration. Such a comparison was possible in nine schools 
for the Swedes, in eight for the Norwegians, and in two 
for the Russian Jews. Table xxiii gives the results in full. 
It will be seen when an average of the percentages in the 
schools indicated is taken, that 45% of the Swedes in the 
nine schools do as well or better than the median child of 
the American group. Forty-four percent of the Norwegians 
in the eight schools do as wellor better than the Americans. 
If we drop out the one school in which the Swedes are 
represented, but the Norwegians not, we find the average 



58 Nationality and School Progress 

for the Swedes in the eight schools is cut to 43%, thus 
falling slightly below the Norwegians for the schools in 
which both are represented, and again substantiating the 
result shown in Table xx, so far as the relative standing of 
the two nationalities is concerned. In the two schools in 
which comparisons are possible with the Russian Jews, it 
is found that an average of 42% of this group do as well or 
better than the median American child in the two schools. 
In the same two schools, the median Swedish child does as 
well or better than the median American in 56% of the cases, 
and the median Norwegian in 49% of the cases. This 
relative standing of the related Scandinavian groups as 
compared with the Russian Jewish group agrees with the 
relative standings of the Scandinavian and Jewish groups as 
shown in Table xx. So the result of this method of evaluation 
indicates that the results shown in Table xx are accurate. 

Thus, even without further corroborative evidence which 
will be brought out in Chapter VI, the conclusion may be 
fairly drawn that the American child of the third generation 
will make better school marks than the foreigner of the 
second or third generation. Further comment is reserved 
until the final chapter. 



CHAPTER VI 

NATIONALITY AND OBJECTIVE 
MENTAL TESTS 

Although the conclusions drawn in the previous chapter 
seem to be clear-cut and definite, yet the fact remains that 
in estimating the school marks, there was no common 
standard by which to test the pupils, and the school marks, 
even had they all been given in the same school, would have 
shown the variability which always results from the personal 
equation. Therefore the conclusion was reached that as 
many as possible of the children should be given objective 
tests which would give a common basis for estimating their 
relative abilities. If these objective tests tended to cor- 
roborate the findings of Chapter V, there would be no doubt 
about the conclusion that national differences exist. Fur- 
ther, if the tests could be selected on a basis of requiring 
different abilities and powers of mind, they would go far 
toward showing why the differences already noted exist, and 
perhaps point out even more profound elements in the 
situation. 

Accordingly, a group of tests was collected, which could 
be given as a sort of '^omnibus" test to the children as a part 
of their regular school program under as nearly natural 
conditions as could be arranged. The tests finally chosen 
were as follows: 

I. Opposites test. An opposites test of the familiar form 
was used, this one being devised by Dr. M. J. Van Wagenen, 
of the University of Minnesota. The opposites of fifty 
words were required, with a time allowance of four minutes. 

59 . , 



60 Nationality and School Progress 

II. Language tests. Two of the well known Trabue 
Language Scales were chosen, Scale B, with a time allowance 
of five minutes, and Scale C, seven minutes. For those 
not familiar with these scales, it should be noted that they 
test the ability of the subject in filling out incomplete 
sentences by the addition of such missing words as are 
needed to make sense. 

III. Vocabulary tests. Two tests were given to test 
vocabulary, those chosen being tests devised by Sister 
Jeanne-Marie, of the College of St. Catherine, St. Paul. 
Test III-A and Test I-C were employed. These were made 
up of 56 and 58 words respectively, chosen principally from 
the school histories used in the seventh and eighth grades, 
and were words which may reasonably be supposed to come 
well within the range of the pupil's comprehension. Four 
possible choices were presented to the pupil for each word, 
and he was to underline the one of the four possible defini- 
tions which he thought came nearest to being correct. A 
time limit of seven minutes was fixed for each of these tests. 

IV. Substitution or learning tests. Two of these tests 
were given, the form used being the type worked out by 
Dr. Van Wagenen, in which the subject is given a key 
showing a group of letters, each letter accompanied by a 
certain number. A list of mixed letters corresponding to 
those in the key is then given, and- the subject required to 
write under each letter the number which accompanies that 
letter in the key. He is allowed three minutes for each test. 
He thus tests his speed in learning a new situation, accuracy 
in its application, and speed in the application. 

V. Memory span tests. One of these tests was given, 
in which the subject wrote down a series of numbers, writing 
each as soon as it was called, as a test of immediate retention 
of digits. A series of five four-digit numbers was first given, 
then a series of five five-digit, than a series of five six-digit 



Nationality and Objective Mental Tests 61 

numbers, then seven, eight and nine digit numbers. Owing 
to the number of each type given, only one test of this sort 
was used. 

VI. Number completion tests. Two tests of this sort 
were used, being tests devised in 1918 by Miss Mary Carufel, 
a graduate student of the University of Minnesota, as a 
basis for her Master's thesis. These tests each consisted 
of a series of twenty-five groups of numbers. Each group 
of numbers was worked out according to a principle by 
which each number was gotten from the preceding accord- 
ing to a definite method. The problem of the subject was 
to discover this principle for each group and indicate his 
success by writing down the number next in order for 
each group or line. Three and one-half minutes were 
allowed for each of these tests. 

VII. Geometrical forms. Two tests were given to 
test the ability of the pupils in estimating the component 
parts of a miscellaneous group of geometrical figures. The 
tests used were an ingenious adaptation of the form board 
tests used by Binet and his followers, and were developed 
by Mr. Oscar J. Johnson, a fellow in the College of Educa- 
tion of the University of Minnesota, who saw service 
during the war in the psychological testing corps of the 
Army. The subject was shown a square, triangle, or 
other figure, and was also shown accompanying it, two or 
more figures, which would exactly fit into the area of the 
larger figure. He was to draw lines in the larger figure 
to show how the smaller figures would fit into the larger. 
Two tests of this type were given, each consisting of seven- 
teen forms. Five minutes were allowed for the solution 
of each. 

It should be noted that the time allowance in each of these 
tests save the Trabue, was made shorter than that necessary 
for any but the most exceptional child to complete the test. 



62 Nationality and School Progress 

In this way there was an excellent opportunity to rank 
each child according to his ability in both speed and quality 
of work. Most of the tests have been carefully standard- 
ized, and the relation existing between the pairs of similar 
tests or scales is as follows: 

(Pearson coefficient) Trabue B & C, .60-. 70 

Number completion, .81 ±3 
Substitutions, .60— .70 

Vocabularies, .72 ±3 

While in general it may be assumed that tests involving 
language abilities are better measures of intelligence than 
non-language tests, yet if tests involving abilities which 
are not dependent upon language can be found which show 
a reasonable correlation with intelligence as shown in school 
marks, one may conclude that such tests will be safe to 
use as a partial basis of comparison with language tests. 
The four tests chosen for non-language tests were selected 
on the basis of testing different sorts of abilities, while 
at the same time showing a positive correlation with general 
intelligence as evidenced by school marks. Thus, in a 
group of 178 sixth grade pupils in the Minneapolis public 
schools, the substitution test gave a correlation of .205 
with school marks in arithmetic, English, history and 
geography. In the same group, the geometrical forms 
test gave a correlation of .232 with the same marks. With 
a group of 127 ninth grade pupils, in the same system, the 
number completion tests gave a correlation of .246 with 
school marks. This positive correlation with school marks 
was felt to be a definite indication that the four tests selected 
will give at least as high a degree of correlation as any set 
of four short non-language tests might be expected to 
show; and while probably the Trabue, the opposites and 
the vocabulary tests would show higher correlations with 
school marks, they might at the same time be expected 



- Nationality and Objective Mental Tests 63 

to show greater degrees of overlapping. In view of these 
relationships, the fact that the results of the two types of 
tests show marked differences would give rise to a feeling 
that the language element might conceivably be a factor 
in explaining the differences apparently due to nature, 
altho it is impossible to fix any definite degree to which 
this factor enters, and it is not possible to state that it is 
the only factor, or even, perhaps, the most important one. 

The time required to give the entire group of tests was 
found to be one and one-half hours. In order that there 
might be as much variety as possible, to lessen the strain 
of the test and lighten the fatigue element, the tests were 
arranged in an order so that the language and non-language 
tests would alternate. First was given the Opposites Test; 
second, the Substitution Tests; third, the Trabue Scales; 
fourth, the Memory Span; fifth, the Vocabulary III-A; 
sixth, the Number Completions; seventh, the Vocabulary 
I-C; eighth, the Geometrical Forms Tests. 

The writer gave a large number of the tests personally; 
but he found it necessary to use assistants, three in number, 
who were recommended by the Department of Educational 
Psychology and proved to be exceptionally capable; in 
order to secure absolute uniformity in the giving of the 
tests, each assistant was furnished with complete directions 
for the conduct of the entire group test; these instructions 
were very explicit, and covered every point which could 
arise in the course of the test, giving the exact words to be 
used by the examiner. As a result of this careful attention 
to minutiae, remarkable uniformity of procedure marked 
the giving of the tests. 

Since the original plan of the investigation did not con- 
template the giving of objective tests, the year 1917-18 
had closed before they could be given. As is well known, 
the fall term of 1918-19 was almost completely lost in the 



64 Nationality and School- Progress 

public schools on account of the influenza epidemic, and so 
the tests were not finally given until just a year after the 
original question blanks were distributed — that is, in March 
and the early part of April, 1919. As the classes had been 
promoted one year, the tests could not be given to the 
eighth graders of 1918, as they could not be segregated in 
the high schools for the purpose. So the tests were given 
to the eighth and seventh grades of 1919, representing the 
seventh and sixth grades of 1918, in those schools which 
seemed to have the best representation of the nationalities 
available for the purpose. Those decided upon were the 
Adams, Bryant, Calhoun, Harrison, Jackson, Grant, Motley, 
and Prescott, all of Minneapolis. The Clay was not visited 
because its sixth graders of 1918 were all enrolled in the 
Jackson, of which it is a ''feeder." The Holland was not 
used because there were no elements in its constituency 
which would add to the results obtained in the other schools, 
and the same holds true of the St. Paul schools. In the 
eight schools named, tests were given to about 1600 pupils 
in forty-six rooms. Those tests were then eliminated which 
were written by pupils who had joined the school since the 
previous year, or whose names were not found in the list 
of the previous year. The final tally showed, of the most 
distinctive groups, the following totals: 



Group 1 

Group 3 

Group 4 

Group 5 

Group 6 

Group 7 

Group 8 

Group 10 



Americans, 139 

Germans, 37 

Norwegians, 78 

Swedes, 159 

Austrians, 36 

Roum. Jews, 58 

Russian Jews, 111 

Finns, 28 



Total, 646 



Nationality and Objective Mental Tests 



65 



Of these, Groups 3, 6, and 10 contained too few cases to 
be of value, and were dropped from consideration. This 
left five important groups for final evaluation, forming really 
three main divisions, namely, Americans of at least the 
third generation in this country, Scandinavians, involving 
both Norwegians and Swedes, and Jews, made up of the 
two related groups, Roumanians and Russians. A study 
was then made of the relative numbers taken from the two 
grades tested, for a predominance of eighth graders in the 
ranks of any one nationality would naturally be expected 
to give it an advantage in the final scoring over the others. 
The study showed the following proportions : 





Group 


Cases 


Grades 








Eighth 


Seventh 


% in 8th 


1 


American 


139 

78 


85 
43 


54 
35 


.61 


4 


Norwegian 


.55 


5 


Swedish 


159 


91 


68 


.57 


7 


Roumanian Jew. . . 


58 


27 


31 


.47 


8 


Russian Jews 


111 


44 


67 


.40 



It was at once apparent that the American group contained 
too many eighth graders, and the Jewish groups too many 
seventh graders, to make comparisons at all valid. Accord- 
ingly, ten American eighth graders, thirty Russian Jewish 
seventh graders and three Roumanian Jewish seventh 
graders were dropped from the number. The Americans 
were picked at random, from each of the schools contribut- 
ing, proportionate to the number represented in each school. 
The Jewish cases dropped were a group in which, through 
some oversight, one of the substitution tests was not given, 
and so in any case, the value of the remaining tests would 



66 



Nationality and School Progress 



have been somewhat vitiated on that account. This gave 
the following adjustment: 





Group 


Cases 


Grades 




Eighth 


Seventh 


% in 8th 


1 


American. ........ 


129 

-78 

159 

55 

81 


75 
43 
91 
27 
44 


54 
35 
68 
28 

37 


.58 


4 

5 


Norwegian 

Swedish 


.55 
.57 


7 
8 


Roumanian Jew , . . 
Russian Jews 


.50- 
.54 



This gave a reasonably close agreement, and represented 
the best approximation which could be made without 
dropping so many cases as to cut the number in each group 
too small to be of value. It should be noted at this point 
that the conditions under which the tests were given were 
made as nearly normal as possible. The principals of the 
various buildings showed themselves more than anxious 
to co-operate in the most effective manner. Therefore it 
was possible to give the tests in the regular school period 
substituting them for the regular exercises of the day. This 
fact was found to produce a favorable atmosphere in the 
room, as a welcome interruption of the ordinary routine. 
Nearly all the tests were given at the opening of the after- 
noon session, so that the pupils did not become restless on 
account of previous school duties, nor were they fearful 
lest they be kept beyond the ordinary closing bell. In five 
cases, the tests were given at the opening of the morning 
session. As it developed that the schools in which these 
tests were given otherwise scored comparatively low, any 
fancied advantage from the morning hour did not appear 
in the final scores. It was, of course, impossible to allow 
for differences in weather conditions. As a matter of fact, 
most of the days were cloudy, gray days; there was, however, 



Nationality and Objective Mental Tests 67 

but little difference in the temperature of the out of doors 
and indoors as the temperature was adjusted so that the 
rooms stood very close to 70°. The tendency found in 
most rooms was to keep them too warm, so the windows 
were adjusted to secure the proper result. Although the 
tests took an hour and a half for completion, there was very 
little evidence of fatigue. In a few cases where restlessness 
developed to a marked degree, as happened in some five of 
the seventh grades, a short calisthenic drill was allowed at 
the close of the sixth test. This was not found necessary, 
in most cases, and in any case did not occupy over three 
minutes. Neither pupils nor teachers were given advance 
notice of the nature or character of the tests, so that there 
was no opportunity for "coaching," even had there been a 
disposition for this. The fact that it was made clear to all 
principals that nothing in the way of a school survey, or 
of a public comparison of schools, was in progress, also 
removed any motive for such coaching. In two schools 
located in the better residence districts, the pupils had seen 
some of the sample psychological tests published in certain 
popular magazines and manifested their interest in the tests 
given, on account of a fancied familiarity with the tests as 
illustrated in these publications. Such frank expressions 
as these showed pretty definitely that there had been 
nothing attempted in the way of coaching on the part of 
teachers. 

Result of the Tests 

The scoring of the papers was done by a committee of 
four persons. Each person was assigned a certain test or 
tests, and scored all papers in this test. Thus there was 
definite uniformity in scoring, especially as the mechanical 
means of scoring adopted in accordance with the keys furn- 
ished for each test practically eliminated the subjective 
element. 



68 



Nationality and School Progress 



The scores in each test were carefully tabulated, and then 
were weighted for comparative purposes. The weights 
were taken arbitrarily, to give comparable figures in each 
case. The raw unweighted scores in the Opposites test 
were used unweighted, as the scores ran from to a possible 
100. The two Trabues were added together, and then 
multiplied by four, giving a range of to 156. The vocabu- 
laries were added together, and the raw scores used as 
resulting, giving a range from to 182. These three lan- 
guage tests were then combined, the weighted scores as 
described being added together, and the resultant scores 
tabulated. The two substitution tests were added, and 

TABLE XXIV 

SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF GROSS SCORES MADE BY FIVE NATIONAL GROUPS IN 

EIGHT SCHOOLS IN THE THREE LANGUAGE TESTS, OPPOSITES, TRABUE 

AND VOCABULARY 



• 


Nationality 


Score 


Amer- 


Norwe- 


Swedish 


Rouman- 


Russian 




ican 


gian 




ian Jews 


Jews 


360-399 


3 





1 








340-359 


9 


1 


5 


1 


2 


320-339 


10 


4 


3 


1 


3 


300-319 


14 


4 


6 


5 


6 


280-299 


19 


7 


14 


7 


7 


260-279 


23 


9 


17 


6 


13 


240-259 


18 


8 


26 


8 


11 


220-239 


15 


16 


24 


8 


20 


200-219 


9 


13 


29 


8 


4 


180-199 


4 


9 


9 


6 


5 


160-179 


2 


3 


10 


3 


7 


140-159 


3 





8 





1 


0-139 





4 


7 


1 


2 


Totals 


129 
271.4 


78 
233.3 


159 
234:7 


54 
242.5 


81 


Medians 


242.5 



Nationality and Objective Mental Tests 



69 



not further weighted. The Memory Span raw scores 
were multiplied by 10. The two Number Completions were 
added and multiplied by six. The two Geometrical Forms 
were added and multiplied by ten. These four weighted 
scores were added and tabulated as a basis for estimating 
the Non-Language group of tests. 

Tables xxiv and xxv give the results of the tests, the 
measures being condensed for convenience of tabulation. 



table xxv 

showing gross scores made by five national groups in eight schools in 

the four non-language tests, substitutions, memory span, 

number completions, and geometrical forms 





Nationality 


Score 


Amer- 


Norwe- 


Swedish 


Rouman- 


Russian 




ican 


gian 




ian Jews 


Jews 


950-1000 





1 











900- 949 


4 














850- 899 


1 


2 


2 





1 


800- 849 


3 


3 


5 


1 


1 


750- 799 


7 


4 


8 


4 


3 


700- 749 


17 


8 


17 


4 


7 


650- 699 


15 


11 


11 


3 


19 


600- 649 


16 


12 


26 


9 


12 


550- 599 


24 


9 


19 


9 


6 


500- 549 


14 


6 


27 


4 


9 


450-499 


9 


9 


14 


5 


8 


400- 449 


9 


8 


17 


8 


8 


350- 399 


9 


1 


3 


2 


3 


300- 349 





2 


8 


3 





200- 299 


1 


2 


2 


2 


4 


Totals 


129 

597.5 


78 
605.0 


159 
574.1 


54 
565.0 


81 


Medians 


607.5 











70 



Nationality and School Progress 



TABLE XXVI 
SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF OBJECTIVE TESTS GIVEN TO FIVE NATION.A.L GROUPS IN 
EIGHT SCHOOLS, GIVING MEDIANS, P. E. AND SIGMA VALUES AND LIKELI- 
HOOD OF INTERCHANGE OF MEDIANS 





Nationality 


Test 


Ameri- 
ican 


Norwe- 
gian 


Swedish 


Rouman- 
ian Jews 


Russian 
Jews 


Opposites 

Median . 


55.4 
9.9 

14.7 
1.0 

105.3 

10.9 

16.2 

1.1 

112.2 

18.8 

27.9 

2.0 

271.4 

32.0 

47.5 

3.4 

154.9 

22.4 

33.2 

2.4 


46.8 
8.9 

13.3 
1.2 

96.4 

11.2 

16.6 

1.5 

98.0 

22.7 

33.6 

3.2 

233.3 

33.4 

49.5 

4.7 

156.7 

22.3 

33.1 

3.1 


44.9 

9.3 

13.8 

.8 

96.7 

12.0 

17.8 

1.2 

98.1 

21.4 

31.8 

2.1 

234.7 

35.9 

53.3 

3.5 

152.2 

22.2 

33.0 

2.2 


47.0 
9.0 

13.4 
1.5 

96.4 

11.6 

17.3 

1.9 

107.0 

20.5 

30.4 

3.4 

242.5 

32.0 

47.5 

5.4 

149.5 

31.6 

46.8 

5.3 


46.5 


P. E 


10.1 


sigma . , 


15.0 


rel. coef . ........... 


1.4 


Trabues 

Median 

P. E......... 


94.2 
10.9 


sigma 


16.2 


rel. coef 


1.5 


Vocabularies 

Median 


107.5 


P. E... 


19.1 


sigma 


28.3 


rel. coef 


2.6 


All Language 

Median 


242.5 


P. E. 


34.7 


sigma 


51.5 


rel. coef 


4.7 


Substitutions 

Median 


161.5 


P. E 


29.6 


sigma 

rel. coef 


43.9 
4.1 







Nationality and Objective Mental Tests 



71 





table XXVI — continued 








Nationality 


Test 


Amer- 
ican 


Norwe- 
gian 


Swedish 


Rouman- 
ian Jews 


Russian 
Jews 


Memory Span 

Median 


161.2 

30.7 

45.6 

3.3 

160.2 

58.1 

86.0 

6.3 

152.8 

39.2 

58.1 

4.2 

597.5 

82.3 

122.0 

8.9 


144.2 

27.3 

40.5 

3.8 

177.0 

51.5 

76.3 

7.2 

141.4 

42.3 

62.8 

5.9 

605.0 
98.0 

145.3 
13.7 


140.4 

27.8 
41.2 

2.7 

159.0 

52.5 

77.4 

5.0 

144.5 

37.0 

55.0 

3.6 

574.1 

87.8 

132.6 

8.7 


163.3 

30.0 

44.5 

5.0 

171.0 

57.9 

85.8 

9.8 

107.5 

35.6 

52.8 

6.0 

565.0 
94.5 

140.2 
16.0 


160.7 


P. E 


33.4 


signia 


49.6 


rel. coef 


4 6 


No. Completion 
Median 


165.5 


p. E 


56.7 


sigma 


84.1 


rel. coef 


7.8 


Geom. Forms 
Median 


105.5 


p. E 


34.9 


sigma 


51.8 




4.8 


All Non-Language 
Median 


607.5 


P. E 


93.1 


sigma 


138.0 


rel. coef 


12.8 







Table xxvi gives a summary of the results of all the tests, 
in terms of medians, and in this are also included the P. E. 
values, the sigma values, and the ''coefhcient of reliability" 
or measure of reliability of the medians. Inspection of the 
language tests shows a marked superiority of the American 
group over the other two related groups in every case. The 
close relationship of the two elements of the Scandinavian 
group, and of the two elements of the Jewish group, is also 



72 Nationality and School Progress 

very marked, in each test. In the Opposites and Trabue 
tests, which are essentially measures of the general language 
ability of the child, there is very little difference between 
the two foreign divisions; but in the Vocabularies, which 
tested ability to define words in the child's reading vocabu- 
lary, and especially his school reading vocabulary, the 
Jewish group is definitely better than the Scandinavian. 
Accordingly the Jewish group shows a corresponding 
advantage over the Scandinavian, when the comparison is 
made of all the language tests combined. 

Inspection of the non-language tests reveals a different 
story. Here the American group displays no marked 
superiority over the related groups, save in one instance. 
In fact, the American median is definitely below that of the 
other groups in several instances. There is still general 
agreement between the component parts of the two related 
groups, but not iji so marked a degree, for in the case of the 
Substitutions, the Russian median is decidedly higher than 
the Roumanian, and in the Number Completion, the Nor- 
wegians quite surpass the Swedes. This latter case was 
explained by a definitely heavy grouping of the measures 
around the zero mark. This resulted from the fact that 
the instructions given the pupils proved difficult of com- 
prehension to a large number, and so in every room tested 
there were from one to five who did nothing on this test. 
Whether this is a factor which should be given great weight 
is an open question. The one case which shows marked and 
uniform differences between the groups is the Geometrical 
Forms. In this test, the American group leads clearly, the 
Scandinavian group is a close second, and the Jewish groups 
are quite deficient. The tabulation of the combined non- 
language tests gives results which confirm the statement 
that these tests do not show clear-cut differences, taken as a 
group, such as are shown in the language group. Ranking 



Nationality and Objective Mental Tests 73 

by medians, the order of achievement is: first, Russian Jews, 
second, Norwegians, third, Americans, fourth, Swedes, fifth, 
Roumanian Jews. 

By way of testing the reliability of these medians, in each 
case a "reliability coefficient" is given which is derived 
according to the formula given in Thorndike's Mental and 
Social Measurements, Page 194, where the P. E. (probable 
error) of the obtained median from the true median is given 
as .6745 (f .sigma-M//^). This is to be used to indicate the 
probable range of the median, and so to determine the 
likelihood of the medians being interchanged with any addi- 
tion to or increase in the number of cases. Thus, in the 
Language Group median for the Americans, the median 
271.4 may be increased and decreased by the coefficient 
3.4 to indicate the probable range, 271.4 plus 3.4 equaling 
274.8, and 271.4 minus 3.4 equalling 268.0. Thus the 
probable range of the median is from 278.4 down to 268.0. 
In the same way, the probable range of the Roumanian 
Jewish group is 242.5 plus or minus 5.4, or a range of 247.9 
down to 237.1. It will be readily seen that the chance is 
very remote of any interchange of median between the 
American and Roumanian Jewish group. On the other 
hand, in the Non-Language group, the American range is 
from 606.4 down to 588.6, and the range of the Roumanian 
Jewish group from 581.0 down to 549.0, and of the Russian 
Jewish group from 620.3 down to 594.7. Thus there is 
actual overlapping in the range of the American and Russian 
groups, and only a margin of seven points separating the 
Americans and Roumanians. Here the significance of the 
medians can not be pronounced very definite. Another 
way of showing the results of the tables is given in Table 
XXVII. Here the percentage of "overlapping" of the 
various groups with the American Group is shown. That 
is, the number and percentage of cases of each group which 



74 



Nationality and School Progress 



do as well or better than the median American child is shown 
for each test. 

The table is to be read in this way: Twenty Norwegian 
children, or 25.6% of the Norwegian children, do as well or 
better than the median American child in the Opposites 
Test. Thirty-six Swedes, or 22.6% of the Swedish children, 
do as well or better than the median American child in the 
Opposites Test. Seventeen Russian Jewish children or 
20.9% of the Russian Jewish children do as well or better 
than the median American in the Geometrical Forms Tests. 
Forty-eight Norwegian children, or 61.5% of the Norwegians 
do as well or better than the median American child in the 
Number Completion Tests. While the results are the 
same, this method of stating them may appear more vivid 
than the comparison of medians. 

TABLE XXVII 

SHOWING NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF EACH OF FOUR NATIONAL GROUPS WHO DO 
AS WELL OR BETTER THAN THE MEDIAN AMERICAN CHILD IN THE 
VARIOUS OBJECTIVE TESTS 





Amer- 


Norwegian 


Swedish 


Roumanian 


Russian 


Test 


ican 










Jews 


Jews 




Med. 


No. 


% 


No. 


% 


No. 


% 


No. 


% 


Opposites ........ 


55.4 


20 


25.6 


36 


22.6 


13 


24.0 


19 


23.4 


Trabues 


105.3 
112.2 


21 
26 


26.8 
33.3 


44 
48 


27.6 
30.1 


14 

25 


25.9 
46.2 


21 

35 


25.9 


Vocabularies 


43.2 


All Language 


271.4 


22 


28.2 


38 


23.9 


17 


31.4 


24 


29.6 


Substitutions 


154.9 


41 


52.5 


76 


47.8 


24 


44.4 


47 


58.0 


Memory Span .... 


161.2 


25 


32.0 


51 


32.0 


28 


51.8 


40 


49.3 


No. Completion. . 


160.2 


48 


61.5 


78 


49.0 


31 


57.4 


45 


55.5 


Geom. Forms . 


152.8 


32 


41.0 


70 


44.0 


14 


25.9 


17 


20.9 


All Non-Language. 


597.5 


41 


52.5 


69 


43.4 


22 


40.7 


43 


53.0 



Nation AxiTY and Objective Mental Tests 75 

The conclusions from the objective tests are clearly that 
the American child of the third generation is distinctly 
better in all tests requiring language abilities, than the 
children of the foreign born, or of the second generation 
from the foreign born. In general, it may be as definitely 
said that there are no great national differences apparent 
in the abilities which do not require language knowledge 
or familiarity. The only exception to this is in the case of 
perception of geometrical form, in which evidently the 
racial trend of the Jewish people away from mechanics and 
mechanical ingenuity seems to be productive of a definite 
loss in form-perception. Further conclusions are reserved 
for Chapter VIII. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE NATIONALITY FACTOR IN RELATION TO 
OTHER FACTORS AS AFFECTING 
SCHOOL PROGRESS 

Mobility of students. 

a. One marked feature of public school conditions m 
America, and a feature especially marked in the larger cities, 
is the continual shifting of pupils between schools in the same 
city and between localities in general. This restlessness 
of the typical American is without doubt a definite factor in 
the progress, or rather lack of progress, of many children in 
school. The study under consideration has been worked 
out to show the relation of this shifting as it occurs in the 
various nationality groups observed, and is put in tabular 
form in the following pages. 

Two thousand four hundred and twenty-three childreri in 
Minneapolis and St. Paul were studied in this connection, 
and in Table xxviii the results for the entire group are col- 
lected. It will be seen that 521 out of the total number have 
attended school in other cities or towns than the one in 
which they now live — 21 . 5%, or, roughly, one in every five. 
One thousand four hundred eighty-two have attended other 
schools, either in the same district or outside, than the one 
in "which now enrolled, — ^61.1%, nearly two out of every 
three. Of course, a certain amount of this shifting within 
the system is not the fault of the pupil (or parent), but is 
due to the administration of the system — changing of school 
district boundaries, opening of new buildings, consolidation 
of districts, restricting upper grade work to only one of a 
group of three or more buildings, and the like. ' Inspection 

76 



The Nationality Factor 77 

of the actual schools in which the children have been enrolle4 
shows that this administrative factor is not important in the 
situation in the schools studied, and this is further accounted 
for by the fact that the schools under observation are, with 

table XXVIII 

mobility of 2,423 Minneapolis and st. paul school children, showing 
number of schools they have attended 

Number who have attended the school only in which they are 
now enrolled 941 

Number who have attended 2 schools bo'th in Minneapolis (or 
St. Paul) V 555 

3 schools, all local 253 

4 schools, all local , 98 

5 schools, all local 41 

6 or more schools, all local 14 

Total 961 

Number who have attended 2 schools, including the one now 
attended and one outside of the city 160 

2 outside of the city. 41 

3 outside of the city 13 

4 outside of the city 5 

5 or more outside the city 2 

Total 221 

Number who have attended one local and one outside of the 
city, in addition to the one in which now enrolled (3 in all) . . . 141 

4 in all, local and outside 79 

5 in all, local and outside 37 

6 in all, local and outside 24 

7 or more local and outside 19 

Total 300 

Total who have attended more than one school 1,482 

Grand Total 2,423 



78 Nationality and School Progress 

summary of table xxviii 

Number who have attended only the school in which they are enrolled 941 

Number who have attended two schools 715 

three schools 435 

four schools 190 

five schools 83 

six or more schools 59 

Total 2,423 

Number who have attended no schools outside of the city in which they are 
living. .1,902 

Number who have attended school itt other localities besides the one in 
in which they are now living 521 

Total 2,423 

one exception, large buildings, which are not ''fed" by 
smaller buildings. In this one case (the Jackson, Minneapo- 
lis), the pupils were considered, if coming from the Clay or 
Peabody schools, as having been enrolled continuously in one 
building only, and so are not included in the totals just 
quoted. It will be noted that 59 children have each attended 
six or more schools during their school lives. Some of these 
cases are notable. Twelve have a record ranging from 
eight to thirteen schools; all of these are retarded from 
six months to five years, with one exception, and this one is 
lowest in scholarship rank in his class. All but two are 
below median in scholarship, or have not been enrolled long 
enough in the school in question to have received a mark for 
the semester, and so are required to repeat the grade. The 
two exceptions are a girl in the eighth grade of the Sibley 
School of St. Paul, who had attended seven other schools 
in St. Paul and one outside, was fifteen years and four 
months old, but ranked first in her class; and a girl in the 
sixth A grade of the Calhoun School of Minneapolis, whose 
father was an itinerant photographer; she had attended two 



The Nationality Factor 



79 



schools in Minneapolis and ten outside, besides the Calhoun, 
and so was fourteen years and two months old before 
completing the sixth grade, altho she ranked second in her 
class. If these two children can remain static for the 
remainder of their school careers, they will undoubtedly 
be able to make up some time and to graduate from high 
school before twenty years* of age, but in the case of the 
other ten, there is no reason to believe that the combination 
of retardation and poor scholarship will result otherwise than 
in their being forced to leave school without completing the 
twelve grades, and in most cases it will mean barely com- 
pleting the eighth. 

table XXIX 
SHOWING MOBILITY OF SCHOOL POPULATION, AS DISTRIBUTED BETWEEN NATION- 
ALITY GROUPS 1 TO 12, INCLUSIVE, GIVING NUMBER 
OF CASES 



Group 
Num- 
ber 


Nation - 


Total 
Cases 


No. Att. 

only one 

School 


No. Att. 
other 
locals 


No. Att. 

other 

outside 


No. Att. 

other both 

local & 

out 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 


United States. . . 
Great Britain . . . 

Germany -. 

Norway 

Sweden 

Austro-Hun- 
gary 


342 
153 
184 
220 
423 

118 
96 

324 
29 
51 
24 
18 


124 
64 
76 
81 

198 

71 
40 

82 
9 

23 
8 
8 


103 
53 
76 
87 

156 

33 
40 
181 
15 
12 
10 
8 


49 
15 
15 
20 

37 

10 
4 

16 
1 

10 
2 



66 
21 
17 

32 
32 

4 


7 
8 
9 


Roumanian Jews 
Russian Jews . . . 
Poland 


12 

45 

4 


10 
11 
12 


Finland 

Denmark 

Italy 


6 
4 
2 










1,982 


784 


774 


179 


245 



80 



Nationality and School Progress 



TABLE XXX 



showing mobility of school population, as distributed between nation- 
ality GROUPS 1 TO 12, inclusive, GIVING PERCENTAGES OF EACH 



Group 

.Num- 
ber 


Nation 


Total 

Cases 


Percentage Who Have Attended 


Present 

School 

Only 


Other 

Local 

Schools 


Other 
Outside 
Schools 


Other 
Both Lo- 
cal & Out- 
side 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
9 


United States. . . 
Great Britain . . . 
Germany ....... 

Norway 

Sweden ........ 

Austro-Hun- 

gary 

Roumanian Jews 
Russian Jews. . . 
Poland. ........ 


342 
153 
184 
220 
423 

118 
96 

324 
29 
51 
24 
18 


36.2 
41.8 
41.3 
36.8 
46.8 

60.2 
41.6 
25.3 
31.1 
45.1 
33.3 
44.4 


30.1 
34.6 
41.3 
39.6 
36.9 

28.0 
41.6 
56.0 
51.7 
23.5 
41.7 
44.4 


14.4 
9.8 
8.2 
9.1 

8.7 

8.4 
4.2 
4.9 
' 3.5 
19.6 
8.3 



19.3 
13.8 

9.2 
14.5 

7.6 

3.4 
12.6 
13.8 
13.7 


10 
11 
12 


Finland 

Denmark 

Italy 


11.8 
16.7 
11.2 










39.5 


39.1 


9.0 


12.4 



Tables xxix and xxx show the distribution of this 
mobility among the nationality groups, the first giving the 
number of cases and the second the percentages for each 
group. The significant point of these tables is that the 
American group, which is least retarded in general, and 
stands highest in scholarship, also is the most mobile, in 
so far as movement between localities is concerned, although 
they are not as mobile within the system as the Russian 
Jews. This shows very definitely that the greater retarda- 
tion and less acceleration of other groups cannot be explained 
on the ground that they are more mobile than those of 



The Nationality Factor 81 

American ancestry. It also seems to indicate that the mobil- 
ity of American children is attended with less disastrous 
results than in the case of other nationalities. In fact, 
one might work out a very plausible argument to the effect 
that the resourcefulness and adaptability which have come 
to be known as dominant traits of the typical American are 
developed by this very shifting of the school children. 

Occupation of parents. 

b. The occupation of fathers of 1720 pupils were studied, 
and were classified under sixty different heads. For purposes 
of this study, however, it seemed satisfactory to combine 
these under the heads used in the United States Census, 
namely, Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Manufactur- 
ing and Mechanical Trades, Trade and Commerce, Trans- 
portation, Public Service, Professions, Domestic and Per- 
sonal Service, Clerical. 

The only important departure from this classification 
was the addition of Unskilled Labor as a separate division, 
and a corresponding subtraction from the preceding groups 
of those shown to be engaged in unskilled labor. 

As would of course be the case in a city, the first group 
is very small. The types of occupation classed here are 
nursery and greenhouse owners and employees and, notably, 
a group of Roumanian Jews who are interested in cattle 
raising and dealing on a small scale. There are some market 
gardeners and some retired farmers in the list. 

The influence of the draft had been felt very lightly in 
the families reported at the time of the inquiry, for the 
number reported as soldiers or sailors under the heading 
Public Service was but six. 

■ Such groups as Manufacturing and Mechanical Trades, 
and Trade and Commerce, are not very enlightening, for 
they include so wide a range of occupation, with so widely 



82 



Nationality and School Progress 



varying abilities required, that the relationship of either 
group to intelligence or to effect on school progress of 
children is not very clear. Some comments will clarify the 
situation somewhat. The large number of Russian Jews 
engaged in trade includes both small shop keepers and 
junk dealers, as well as an appreciable number of peddlers. 
The Swedes engaged in Manufacturing and Mechanical 
Trades are principally engaged in the building trades, 
51 of the 168 being carpenters and building contractors; 
41 more work at other forms of building industry; only 26 
are machinists and iron workers, as contrasted with the 



table XXXI 

showing distribution of fathers of 1,720 PUPILS OF 12 NATIONALITIES 

ACCORDING TO OCCUPATIONS. ACTUAL NUMBERS SHOWN 









^ 
















M 








in 






c 










o 








13 






.2 


.2 




en 














(U 




«3 


> 


en 


IV 




i_3 






en « 


• 


i>H 




-i-i 


)-i 


c 


Ph 










OJ 


a 


r^ 




)H 




o 






53 


d 


.2 


en 

u 

6 


< 


bb 




O 

a 

en 

2 


CO 

.2 

r — 1 


*cn 
en 

O 

(-1 


O 


'3 
.2 


o 

s 
s 

o 


;^ 


iz; 


^ 


< 


'^ 


H 
109 


H 


^ 


PL^ 


« 


U 


u 


1 


United States . . . 


314 


7 


63 


37 


8 


57 


7 


14 


12 


2 


Great Britain . . . 


130 





45 


22 


27 


8 


11 


5 


5 


7 


3 


Germany. ...... 


164 


1 


70 


29 


13 


2 


10 


13 


13 


13 


4 


Norway 


183 


2 


83 


25 


27 


3 


14 


9 


3 


17 


5 


Sweden 


354 


7 


168 


42 


58 


9 


17 


18 


9 


26 


6 


Austro-Hun- 
























gary 


98 





58 


4 


3 


3 





7 





23 


7 


Roumanian Jews 


83 


2 


31 


38 


8 








1 


1 


2 


8 


Russian Jews . , . 


289 


5 


99 


137 


18 


5 


8 


6 


3 


8 


Q 


Poland 


26 
45 



1 


13 
31 




3 


2 

3 


1 
2 



1 


1 



2 



7 


10 


Finland ........ 


4 


11 


Denmark 


21 


1 


9 


3 


2 


1 





2 





3 


17 


Italian 


13 








2 








3 


. 3 





5 




Totals 






1,720 


26 


670 


414 


198 


42 


121 


72 


50 


127 



The Nationality Factor 



83 



table XXXII 

SHOWING PERCENTAGES OF FATHERS OF 1,720 PUPILS OF 12 NATIONALITIES 
ENGAGED IN VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS 



d 


1 


U 
d 


w 

d 

< 

< 




H 


.2 

d 
*-> 

O 

H 


a; 


C 

.2 

en 

1) 

o 


tn 

Ph 

o 

Q 


a 
o 




o 

c 
o 

a 
s 

o 
U 


1 


United States . . . 


314 


2.2 


20.0 


35.0 


11.7 


2.5 


18.1 


2.2 


4.4 


4.0 


2 


Great Britain . . . 


130 


0.0 


34.6 


17.0 


20.0 


6.1 


8.4 


3.8 


3.8 


5.3 


3 


Germany 


164 


0.6 


42.8 


17.7 


7.9 


1.2 


6.1 


7.9 


7.9 


7.9 


4 


Norway 


183 


1.2 


45.3 


13.6 


14.8 


1.6 


7.7 


4.9 


1.6 


9.3 


5 


Sweden 


354 


2.0 


47.3 


12.0 


16.4 


2.5 


4.8 


5.1 


2.5 


7.4 


6 


Austro-Hungary. 


98 


0.0 


59.2 


4.0 


3.1 


3.1 


0.0 


7.1 


0.0 


23.5 


7 


Roiunanian Jews 


83 


2.4 


37.4 


45.8 


9.6 


0.0 


0.0 


1.2 


1.2 


2.4 


8 


Russian Jews . . . 


289 


1.7 


34.3 


47.5 


6.2 


1.7 


2.8 


2.1 


1.0 


2.7 


Q 


Poland 


26 
45 


0.0 
2.2 


50.0 
68.9 


0.0 
6.7 


7.7 
6.7 


3.8 
4.4 


0.0 

2.2 


3.8 
0.0 


7.7 
0.0 


27.0 


10 


Finland 


8.9 


11 


Denmark 


21 


4.8 


42.8 


14.3 


9.5 


4.8 


0.0 


9.5 


0.0 


14.3 


P 


Italian 


13 


0.0 


0.0 


15.3 


0.0 


0.0 


23.1 


23.1 


0.0 


38.5 




Totals 






1,720 


1.5 


39.0 


24.1 


11.5 


2.4 


7.0 


4.2 


2.9 


7.4 



Austro-Hungarian group, where 25 of 58 in this group are 
machinists, and 12 more are mill operatives; the Norwegians 
also contribute more to the building trades than to any 
other industry; the German group contributes the only 
other appreciable number to building. 

Table xxxi gives the actual numbers engaged in each 
occupational group; Table xxxii gives the percentages of 
distribution of each group among the various occupations; 
Table xxxiii shows the proportional number each national- 
ity contributed to the total number engaged in each oc- 
cupati-onal group. The tendency of American parents to 



84 



Nationality and School Progress 



TABLE XXXIII 

SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OE OCCUPATION AMONG VARIOUS NATIONALITIES, GIVING 
PERCENTAGES FOR EACH OCCUPATION 



.2 

a 

u 

o 

o 


bi) 

c 
W 

6 


d 

■^-> 


O 


s 

o 


o 




W 

2 

.4-1 


a 

o 


'55 

m 


1— 1 
o 

fin 






1— H 


Agriculture 

Mfg.&Mech.... 

Trade 

Transport 

Pub. Service .... 

Professions ..... 

Dom, & Per..... 

Clerical ........ 

Uns, Labor 


26 
670 
414 
198 

42 
121 

72 

50 
127 


27.0 

9.4 

26.. 3 

18.7 

19.1 

47.1 

9.7 

28.0 

9.5 


0.0 

6.7 

5.3 

13.7 

19.1 

9.1 

6.9 

10.0 

5.5 


3.8 

10.5 

7.1 

6.5 

4.7 

8.3 

18.1 

26.0 

10.3 


7.7 
12.4 

6.1 
13.7 

7.1 
11.6 
12.5 

6.0 
13.5 


27.0 
25.1 
10.2 
29.3 
21.5 
14.1 
25.0 
18.0 
20.5 


0.0 
8.6 
0.9 
1.5 
7.1 
0.0 
9.7 
0.0 
18.1 


7.7 
4.6 
9.1 
4.0 
0.0 
0.0 
1.4 
2.0 
1.5 


19.2 

14.8 

33.1 

9.1 

12.1 

6.6 

8.3 

6.0 

6.3 


0.0 
1.9 
0.0 
1.0 

2.3 
0.0 
1.4 
4.0 

5.5 


3.8 
4.6 
0.7 
1.5 
4.7 
0.8 
0.0 
0.0 
3.1 


3.8 
1.4 
0.7 
1.0 

2.3 
0.0 

2.8 
0.0 

2.3 


0.0 
0.0 
0.5 
0.0 
0.0 
2.4 
4.2 
0.0 
3.9 




1,720 





professional and clerical occupation is shown very clearly 
here; the large number of the Swedish group in Transporta- 
tion is explained by the inclusion of street railway employees^ 
section laborers and teamsters and delivery men in this 
group. 

It is rather significant that the Swedish and Norwegian 
population engages to so slight a degree in the professional, 
clerical and mercantile pursuits; there would seem to be 
evident a direct connection between this tendency and the 
comparatively slow progress of the children in school; the 
children of such parentage do not have the same advantages 
in the way of reading matter, are not stimulated to attain 
to a high degree of scholastic proficiency, do not appreciate 
the necessity of application to scholastic work; it is of course 



The Nationality Factor 85 

commendable that the very necessary and vital trades of 
general construction and building are maintained as one of 
the heritages of Swedish children; but there should be no 
monopoly of such an occupation, so that a class feeling 
would grow up, by which any one nationality should control 
or dominate in the industry. There would certainly seem 
to be a strong indication that the Swedish element in the 
population of the Twin Cities, at least, is not grasping the 
opportunity to profit by education to the same extent as 
other newcomers, such as the Russian Jews. 

Economic status of parents. 

c. An element which is tangible and definite in estimating 
the economic condition of a cordmunity is the number of 
citizens in that community who own their homes. In the 
present inquiry data were collected from 2365 pupils of 
whom 1936 belong to the 12 nationality groups especially 
considered. Table xxxiv gives the result of the inquiry. It 
will be noted that the Austrians, Poles, and Finns head the 
list, with very definite percentages in their favor. The 
American and Norwegian groups, on the other hand, rank 
very low in the list. This disposition of the typical American 
to rent is quite in line with his restlessness as shown in the 
study of the mobility of the school population; it was 
therefore to be expected, and in general, the two tables show 
a very close relation. Viewed in the light of general social 
conditions in a large city, the study points some very definite 
tendencies. The fact of the high ownership of homes among 
the Austro-Hungarians is due to the large number of Slovaks 
owning their homes. It is the habit of these people to settle 
in rather humble surroundings, and to become permanent 
in such localities — from the view-point of the American, to 
stagnate. On the other hand, the well known tendency of 
the Russian Jew to progress in the social scale from one 



86 



Nationality and School Progress 



environment to a better, finally invading the most exclusive 
residential districts as his financial accumulations permit, is 
not so apparent in the table, as would seem likely — but his 
ownership of home is to be looked on in the light of pecuniary 
investment for quick sale, rather than as a domicile for the 
remainder of his natural life. Therefore, the ownership of 
a home by the Russian means a very different thing from 
the case of the Slovak. It is more nearly an index of 
improving economic standards. On the other hand, the 
non-ownership of home by the American does not mean a 
correspondingly low economic status, but rather a tendency 
to invest money in other ways than in real estate. It is 
difficult to account satisfactorily for the disparity between 
the Norwegians and Swedes in the table. It may be simply 

table XXXIV 

NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF EACH NATIONAL GROUP OWNING OR RENTING 

HOMES 



Group 
No. 


Nation 


Total 
Cases 


Owning Homes 


Renting Homes 


Number 


% 


Number 


% 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 


United States . . 
Great Britain , . 
Germany. ..... 

Norway 

Sweden 

Austro-Hun- 
garv 


327 
151 
180 
213 
414 

114 

93 
323 
29 
51 
24 
17 


136 
71 

97 

81 

200 

79 

39 
167 

23 

32 

10 

6 


41.6 
47.1 
53.9 
38.1 
48.3 

69.3 

41.9 
51.7 
79.3 
62.7 
41.8 
35.3 


191 

80 

83 

132 

214 

35 

54 
156 
6 
19 
14 
11 


58.4 
52.9 
46.1 
61.9 

51.7 

30.7 


7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


Roumanian 

Jews. . 

Russian Jews. . . 

Poland 

Finland 

Denmark 

Italy . 


58.1 
48.3 
20.7 
37.3 
58.2 
64.7 




Medians 






1,936 


47.7 


52.3 



The Nationality Factor 87 

another difference showing that there is not the general 
similarity in the two nations that has commonly been 
assumed. 

This study is not very illuminating in throwing light on 
the subject of probable school progress. It rather indicates 
that the ownership of the home in a city is not at all the 
reliable economic index it has generally been assumed to be, 
further than to show the dividing line between a tendency 
to thrift, and a condition of definite poverty. It does not 
seem to give that evidence of a home atmosphere conducive 
to scholastic application that is to be expected as an accom- 
paniment of the higher economic status in life. 

Home conditions. 

d. Closely allied with the economic status of the family is 
the general condition of the home : the size of family, presence 
of parents, the tendency to church attendance and religious 
training, are factors which are of importance to the welfare 
of the state, and may have a bearing upon the school life of 
the children. 

One child in every eleven of those studied has no father; 
for of 2397 cases reporting, the fathers of 223 were dead, or 
supposed to be dead! There were others who were living 
with the mother alone, indicating a separation from the 
father, but these could not be verified with enough cases to 
warrant a tabulation. It is quite certain that at least 10% 
of the children do not have the father's influence in the home; 
the fact that this condition, as indicated in Table xxxv, is 
worst in the three larger groups, of Germans, Swedes and 
Roumanians, in view of the varying records of these three 
groups in the records of scholarship and intelligence, would 
indicate for these three groups that there was not much 
relationship between the presence of the father and school 
progress. But the absence of the mother may be a more 



Nationality and School Progress 



serious factor, for the largest percentage of mothers dead 
is found among the Norwegians and Swedes. Fortunately, 
there are not so many homes without mothers for only one 
child out of every twenty had lost his mother; 106 being 
dead out of the total of 2397. Of the 85 widows who are 
supporting their families in whole or part, 15 are American 
and 20 are Swede. This is a percentage of 60% American 
widows who are working, as against 47% Swedes. This 
high percentage of Americans who have left their families 
destitute may be an evidence of the tendency of American 
families to live up their incomes, or it may be the social 
pressure which stresses the desire to maintain a higher 
standard of living than is essential in cases of other national- 
ities. The occupations of these widows will be found in 

Table xxxv. 

table xxxv 
number of pupils in each nationality group with one or both parents 

DEAD 







Fathers 


Mothers 


Both 






Group 


Nation 


D 


EAD 


Dead 


Dead 


Widows 


Total 


No. 












Working 


Cases 














No. 


% 


No. 


% 


Number 






1 


United States. . . 


25 


7.1 


16 


4.6 


1 


15 


350 


2 


Great Britain 


17 


10.3 


4 


2.4 





5 


165 


--> 



Germany 


21 


11.8 


7 


4.0 


2 


6 


177 


4 


Norway 


20 


9.3 


15 


6.9 


2 


7 


215 


5 


Sweden 


47 


11.2 


32 


7.6 


6 


20 


420 


6 


Austro-Hungary . 


10 


7.7 


3 


2.3 





3 


129 


7 


Roumanian Jews 


11 


11.1 


4 


4.4 





1 


99 


8 


Russian Jews. . . . 


25 


7.4 


11 


3.2 





4 


336 


9 


Poland 


1 


2.6 


3 


7.8 





1 


38 


10 


Finland 


7 


15.5 


1 


2.2 





4 


45 


11 


Denmark 


3 


13.7 


1 


4.6 





1 


22 


12 


Italy 


2 


11.1 





0.0 





1 


18 



The Nationality Factor 89 

occupations of 85 widows who are working 

Personal and Domestic Service. . . .31 

Sewing 11 

Clerks 8 

Factory Employees 7 

Stenog. & Bookkeeping 6 

Boarding or Rooming house 3 

Nurse & Matron 4 

Canvassers 4 

Miscellaneous 7 

"State Pensions" 2 

85" 

The study of the size of family has brought out no new 
facts, but is reported for its bearing on the general situation. 
Two thousand three hundred and fifty- two children re- 
ported on this item, and these were carefully checked to 
avoid duplicating pupils in the same family. Duplicates 
were found in 215 cases, so that actually 2137 families were 
studied. One thousand seven hundred and eighty-six 
of these belonged in the 12 nationality groups shown in 
Table xxxvi, and these show a family of four children to be 
the median number for the group. The largest family 
reported contains fifteen children, an English family; there 
are three of fourteen each, two being English and one Fin- 
nish; there are two of thirteen, one Austrian and one Russian 
Jew; and three of twelve each, German, Norwegian and 
Finn. There are nine families of eleven each, and then 
the number jumps to thirty of ten each. American and 
Danish families show a median of three children, Germany, 
Great Britain, Norway, Sweden and Finland, four each, 
Austrian, Roumanian and Russia, five each, while Poland 
and Italy are most productive with six each. One factor 
of error in this study should be noted. There was a tendency 
to count deceased brothers and sisters, and a tendency for 



00 



Nationality and School Progress 



the child to count himself in giving the number of his brothers 
or sisters. Where possible this was corrected, but it could 
not be checked in all cases; the result is that the figures in 
the table are probably somewhat too high. It is certain 
that they are not too low. The small size of American 



TABLE XXXVI 



SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF FAMILIES OF VARIOUS SIZES, AMONG TWELVE 
NATIONALITIES, INVOLVING 1786 FAMILIES 



No. 


Nation 


No. 
Fami- 
lies 


Number of Children Per Family 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 



3 
6 
3 
2 

3 

5 
4 
2 

2 


11 

1 




1 

2 

5 



12 


1 
1 





1 

3 


13 


1 

1 



2 


14 

2 

1 
3 


15 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


United States. 
Great Britain . 

Germany 

Norway. . . . . . 

Sweden 

Austro-Hun- 

gary. 

Roumanian 

Jews 

Russian Jews. 

Poland 

Finland 

Denmark. . . . 
Italy 

Total 


320 
135 
172 
191 

378 

109 

88 
284 
27 
46 
21 
15 


57 
10 
17 
14 

33 

5 

4 

7 

1 
2 



91 
32 
40 
28 
61 

11 

4 
22 

1 
7 
2 
1 


80 
25 
28 
38 

77 

11 

11 
34 

3 

8 

10 




45 
26 
29 
36 
70 

12 

10 

49 



8 
1 
2 


21 
11 
20 

23 

57 

18 

21 

54 
4 
6 
2 
4 


12 
10 

10 
30 

28 

16 

13 

55 

12 

2 

2 

4 


8 

8 

11 

9 

27 

19 

6 

28 
1 
5 
1 
3 


2 
3 
5 
5 
18 

5 

8 
15 
1 
2 

1 


3 
4 
5 
4 
4 

6 

6 
10 

3 
3 

1 


1 




1,786 


150 


300 


325 


288 


241 


194 


126 


65 


49 


30 


9 


1 



median number of children per FAMILY 

For Entire Group 4 

For United States & Denmark. ... 3 
For Germany, Great Britain, Nor- 
way, Sweden and Finland 4 

For Austro-Hungary, Roumania, 

and Russia 5 

For Poland & Italy .... 6 



The Nationality Factor 91 

families is reasonably one of the causes of better school 
progress. In the smaller family, the children have more 
attention, and there is both more time for the mother to 
concentrate her energies on the children, and fewer objects 
for the concentration. 

Five-sixths of the parents studied belong to some church. 
Three thousand one hundred and thirty-six parents were 
reported, exclusive of the Jews, who were not taken into 
account, as they are already included in the Russian Jew and 
Roumanian Jewish groups which have been reported thruout 
this study. Of the 3136 parents, 532 belonged to no church. 
One thousand fifty-nine are Lutherans, 456 Roman Catho- 
lics, 316 Methodists, 192 Presbyterians, 141 Baptists, 117 
Protestant Episcopals, 105 Congregationalists, 73 Greek or 
Orthodox Russian Catholics, and the rest distributed 
between twelve other denominations. There are evident 
the expected tendencies for church preferences to follow 
national lines. The Lutherans are made up almost entirely 
of Swedes, Norwegians and Germans; the Methodists are 
nearly all American; the Orthodox Catholics come from the 
Austrian mixtures; the Baptists have more Swedish members 
than American, the numbers being 48 and 39 respectively; 
the Presbyterians, Congregationalist, and Christian Churches 
are all American; the Protestant Episcopal about equally 
divided between Americans and English; the Roman 
Catholics have their largest membership among the Irish, 
English, and Canadian group, with the Americans, Germans 
and Austrians contributing the next largest groups; all of 
the Italians and practically all of the Poles are Roman 
Catholics. The most significant group is the Non-member 
group: here, 165 of the 532 are Swedes; there were 651 
Swedes studied; hence 25.4% of the Swedes are not church 
members. The next largest group are Americans, 84 of 559, 
or 15%; next came the Norwegians, with 57 out of 370, 



92 



Nationality and School Progress 



or 15.4%; next, the Germans, with 44 out of 309, or 14.2%; 
then the Great Britain group, with 24 out of 252, or 9.5%. 
It will at once be seen that this tendency of the Swedes to 
break from the church is much greater than in the other 
nationalities, even of the Americans. The effect on the 
home is without doubt a very real and in the main, unfor- 
tunate factor in the life of the children. It may well be 
that it is a more direct cause, than at first thought may 
appear, in the unfavorable showing that is made in the 
scholarship and test tables. At any rate it is significant to 
point out the need for a careful study of the relationship 
between church or Sunday School attendance and school 
progress. In Table xxxvii will be found a summary of 
the statistics for the twelve important nationality groups. 



TABLE XXXVII 

DISTRIBUTION OF CHURCH MEMBERSHIP OF 2,546 PARENTS OF 12 NATIONALITIES. 

ACTUAL NUMBERS SHOWN 



6 




en 
















A 






"^ 




















4-1 






O 






•4-1 


cJ 


H 


xh 






SI! 


CJ 




CI 


O 


^ 


^ 


5 


p< 


§ 


2; 


03 




o 
U 




o 


^ 


1 


United States . . 


559 


12 


62 


140 


70 


39 


39 


54 





59 


84 


2 


Great Britain . . 


252 


6 


112 


28 


22 


10 


36 


5 





9 


24 


3 


Germany 


309 


121 


60 


35 


9 


7 


8 


5 





20 


44 


4 


Norway ....... 


370 


263 


5 


20 


10 


3 


1 


4 





7 


57 


5 


Sweden ....... 


651 


372 


1 


32 


13 


48 


2 


11 


1 


6 


165 


6 


Austro-Hun- 


























cfarv 


210 
51 


41 



58 
46 










2 











72 



21 

3 


16 


9 


Poland 


2 


10 


Finland 


80 


71 


























9 


11 


Denmark 


33 


15 








3 








1 








14 


12 


Italian 


31 





31 




























2,546 


901 


375 


255 


127 


109 


86 


80 


73 


125 


415 



The Nationality Factor 93 

A study was made of the husbands and wives who were 
both church members, but belonged to different sects or 
denominations. But of the total number studied, only 74 
cases of this sort were found, and so, on account of the small 
number, the tabulation is omitted from this study. Such 
a condition, of course, may well be a disturbing factor in 
the home, although not necessarily so. At any rate, there 
are so few cases of the sort that they may be considered 
negligible in this inquiry. 



CHAPTER VIII 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

In Chapter V the study of retardation brought out the 
fact that there were differences in amount of retardation 
existing between various national groups. In like manner 
the study of acceleration demonstrated that differences 
existed between these national groups in respect to the 
number of children ahead of their normal place in the grades. 
In general, these two relationships were shown to have an 
inverse agreement, that is, the greater the acceleration, the 
less the retardation. The examination of the marks made 
by these same children in their school work again demon- 
strated that there were appreciable differences existing be- 
tween the nationality groups. In each of these studies 
there were found to be certain notable facts. The American 
group stood at or next to the head in all of the studies. The 
Scandinavian group stood in a median position as compared 
with the entire number. The Jewish group showed less 
stability, the Russians in general placing midway between 
the Norwegians and the Swedes, but the Roumanians 
exhibiting wide divergences. All indications, however, 
pointed to the conclusion that there were definite national 
differences, but the unreliability of the school marks cast a 
doubt upon the reliability of these conclusions, even when 
they were based upon the quartile standing of the pupils 
within the same school, and not between different schools. 
Accordingly as a diagnostic measure, in Chapter VI is 
described the application of objective tests to as many of the 
children involved in the original investigation as could be 
readily reached. The result of these objective tests demon- 

94 



Summary and Conclusions 95 

strated beyond doubt that the differences indicated in the 
tables of Chapter V persist when the pupils are subjected 
to tests of a uniform nature, given under uniform conditions. 
In fact, the results of the objective tests give more dis- 
criminating results even than shown by the comparison of 
school marks. One way of showing this is to compare the 
results of Tables xxiii (p. 57) and xxvii (p. 74). In the 
first the percentages of three nationality groups doing as well 
or better than the American groups in school marks is shown. 
In the other, the same comparison is made for the tests. 
The advantage of the tests as diagnostic measures is immedi- 
ately seen, for the superiority of the American group on all 
language tests is brought out with startling emphasis, while 
the comparatively slight differences in the non-language 
groups is also clear cut and well defined. Thus the entire 
result of the tests is to corroborate the findings of Chapter V 
to the effect that there are real national differences. 

But the question immediately arises: Are these national 
differences inherent? Are they results of the transplanting 
of the foreigner and may they be expected to disappear when 
he has been assimilated? Or are they a combination of both? 
The objective tests suggest the answer. The differences 
are most marked in the language tests. All presentation 
of school work, even in manual training and domestic science, 
is dependent on clear understanding of English. Therefore 
it is definitely certain that those pupils who comprehend 
most clearly and distinctly the instruction which is given, 
other things being equal, will progress the most rapidly, and 
accomplish the most, both in quantity and quality. But 
these school marks, which show the differences noted, were 
taken in the last three years of the elementary school course, 
when all language difficulties are assumed by many to have 
disappeared. In fact the great result of the tests is to 
indicate the probability that language difficulty has not 



96 Nationality AND School Progress 

disappeared, even in pupils of the seventh and eighth grades. 
The Cleveland Survey Report, already quoted, says on this 
point, with reference to the reading tests (Measuring the 
Work of the Public Schools, P. 144): ''The fact that the 
American child is not handicapped by unfamiharity with 
the English Language gives him a slight advantage during 
the first few years. Italian pupils are seriously handicapped. 
The sections of the city in which these pupils live are such 
that factors other than mere lack of English in the homes are 
probably to be recognized as contributing to the low rank of 
these pupils." And again-(P. 147): 'Toles and Bohemians 
make slow progress during the first year, follow the average 
closely for the next four, and then drop below the average 
during the next three years. Language handicaps doubtless 
will explain the slow start received in the first grade. There 
are no available data to explain the apparent weaknesses 
in the upper grades." 

The result of the studies herein made show how hasty 
is this judgment that language difficulties disappear with 
the ''first few years." The evidence is clear to show that the 
language superiority of the American child places him at an 
advantage during his entire elementary school course, and 
it is fair to conclude, even into the high school. The study 
in Chapter IV of language persistence in the home further 
corroborates this finding. When the children are obliged 
to use the foreign language in the home circle to so great 
an extent as indicated in that study, it is seen that this 
language situation is bound to persist later than the first 
few years of the child's school life. When the situation 
continues to such an extent that the American born child 
himself continues the foreign language as the home language 
even when he is married and has a home of his own, as was 
shown to be the case in an appreciable number of instances, 
the fact of his language handicap is accentuated, and worse 



Summary and Conclusions 97 

yet, the handicap is perpetuated as a national heritage to 
the third generation, at least. 

The objective tests show other differences. The geomet- 
rical forms tests bring out conclusively that there are well 
defined racial differences in abilities of a constructive nature. 
The lack of mechanical and inventive occupations among 
the Jews is largely explained by their lack of ability to 
handle such situations successfully. The skill of the 
Scandinavians in just such situations is accented. Aside 
from this test, however, no great inherent differences 
between the nationalities are brought out. The American 
holds his own in the comparison, but makes no highly marked 
showing of superiority, as he does in the language tests. 
Our general answer to the question of the future, when all 
of these nationalities are fused into the American stock, and 
really assimilated, is that the disappearance of language 
difficulties will carry with it the disappearance of other 
marked differences among the descendants of these children. 

With reference to the present situation, further, the 
subsidiary studies afford evidence to show that certain 
factors, which are ordinarily considered as important, vary 
with the national groups, thus accentuating the finding that 
there are differences between these groups. Thus, the 
American is marked among the other nationalities for his 
mobiUty — and yet holds his position of priority in the 
school, despite this generally conceded handicap to effective 
school- progress. Closely related to this are his transient 
home ties, shown by the large percentage of Americans 
who rent their homes, rather than owning them. This, 
again, is popularly supposed to promote retardation and 
poor scholarship — but the American triumphs over this 
supposed handicap. The American parent is most likely 
to be occupied in professional and clerical pursuits, involv- 
ing the higher types of merchandising and manufacturing, 



98 



Nationality and School Progress 



and this tendency to follow pursuits which require familiarity 
with professional and trade literature is a decided advantage 
to the child, even though this literature is not of a definitely 
educational character. For the habit of reading, even if 
it be simply trade and manufacturing journals and reports, 
implies a familiarity with the niceties of language, and a 
comprehension of its technical and more abstruse uses, 
which has its effect on the vocabulary and language tone of 
the home. Here again the language superiority of the 
American has an explanation as well as a verification. 

The general study has brought out incidentally the 
imperative need of greater uniformity in the system em- 
ployed to mark the school progress of the children. It has 
shown that within a school system favorably known thruout 
the country for its modern methods of handling school 
problems, very great divergences exist in the method of 
marking the school progress of the children. So, just as 
the study has pointed out a method by which the superin- 
tendent may discover different standards of marking in 
his school buildings, it also demonstrates how he may, by 
the use of objective tests, determine whether such differences 
as are apparent are justified by the abilities of the children 
in these schools. An illustration of this is shown in the result 
of evaluating the results of the objective tests in Schools 1, 
8, aiid 9, which are respectively the highest, the next to the 
lowest, and the lowest in the medians reported in Table 
xviii, p. 50, for the relative school marks given in these 
schools. The results of the tests in these schools, raw 
scores reported, is as follows: Averages of all groups — 



School 


0pp. 


Trab. 


Vocab. 


Subst. 


Mem. 
Sp. 


No. 
Comp. 


Geom. 
Forms 


1 
8 
9 


49.7 
57.3 
45.9 


12.6 
13.3 
11.5 


56.9 
58.1 
54.4 


74.9 
79.9 
71.0 


15.2 
16.1 
16.4 


12.3 
12.5 
10.1 


7.1 
8.2 
5.5 



Summary and Conclusions 99 

This comparison shows conclusively that there is no 
justification for School No. 1 adopting a higher scale of 
grading its pupils than is used in School No. 8, which 
actually surpasses it in every test. There is more justifica- 
tion for the low marking median shown in School No. 9, 
but not enough difference to justify the great divergence of 
the school from the school median shown in Table xviii. 
Accordingly the objective test proves its utility once more 
as a supervisory instrument. 

General Conclusions: 

While the investigation has developed primarily into the 
consideration of an administrative problenj for the school 
superintendent, yet there are also pertinent conclusions for 
the general reader, and most significant indications of 
necessary procedure for the citizen who is really concerned 
about the problems of Americanization and naturalization — 
problems vitally involved with the future of our common- 
wealth. 

To the general reader, the conclusion is to be stressed that 
there is no justification either to despise the attainments 
of the foreign born and his offspring, or to sublimate his 
achievement unduly at the expense of the native American. 
In general, there are no such marked differences in native 
attainment, as to justify the sort of sweeping assertions 
cited in the early part of this study. On the other hand, the 
handicap which does exist, one of language difhculty, is 
one that is very real, and is not to be dismissed with a laugh 
and an assumption that this difficulty carries with it native 
incapacity. The real position to be taken is that this 
handicap is a formidable obstacle to proper progress of the 
foreigner not only in school, but in all walks of life, and that 
it is the concern of every American to see that all possible 
steps are taken to remove the difhculty. 



100 Nationality and School Progress 

To the school superintendent, this conclusion assumes 
particular force. This study has pointed the way for him 
to evaluate his school system in terms of nationality. It 
has shown him the need for looking below the surface and 
endeavoring to discover the hidden facts which make for 
better school work and school progress, or for the reverse. 
Th^ suggestion is evident that there must be a greater 
flexibility of the school curriculum and methods, to meet 
such situations as have been disclosed. Where great 
numbers of children are handicapped by stubbornly per- 
sisting difhculties of language, this difficulty must be fought 
and reduced, if it can not be eliminated. This can not be 
done by ordinary school-room procedure. A splendid 
illustration of this is brought out by the result of the vocabu- 
lary tests in the case of the Jewish children. In Table xxvi 
it will be noted that the Jewish groups did much better in 
this test than did the Scandinavian groups. This test 
involved a familiarity with the vocabulary of the school, 
and especially of the school histories. But on the other 
hand, when the results of the Trabue and Opposite tests were 
studied, the Jewish children did no better than the Scandi- 
navians. These two tests require not a knowledge of "school- 
room English," but a practical application of the vocabulary 
and expression of daily life. It is a fair conclusion that the 
Jewish groups under observation have more diligently 
applied themselves to the acquisition of the English of the 
school room, but that this knowledge has not really benefited 
them in any marked degree when it comes to the application 
of the language facility to the expression of every day life. 
For such foreign born groups, then, the lesson for the super- 
intendent is that he must add to the usual class-room pro- 
cedure in language, special drill in expression, oral and 
written, more definite study of ordinary conversation, practice 
in using words in accordance with the niceties and delicate 



Summary and Conclusions 101 

shades of expression and meaning, with a definite goal of 
making this knowledge a part of the pupil's every day life 
and practice, rather than a purely school-room exercise. 
Further, it means a flexibility of the course offered to these 
children, by which the Scandinavian will be given especial 
opportunity to develop his undoubted gift for form, for 
mechanical skill and for working into occupational industry 
by the most efficient and practical roads. His Jewish 
compatriot resist be given a different sort of training to make 
him more useful as a citizen in the mercantile and commer- 
cial pursuits for which his ancestry has pointed him, with a 
widening of the field in which he may work to advantage — 
the live-stock and agricultural fields being two in which 
he could well put his talents of organization into play. The 
superintendent can not overlook the part which the objective 
tests can and must play in this whole process. In this study, 
the test has shown itself the vital factor in the investigation. 
Where the study of the school marks was found to be 
faulty, both on account of the unreliabihty as between 
schools and the lack of discrimination between pupil's, and 
on account of the small numbers of cases which resulted 
from a study of over 2500 pupils, a final number in each 
national group so small that the conclusion was forced that 
by that method alone, some twenty or thirty thousand cases 
would have to be studied in order to draw entirely scientific 
and satisfactory conclusions; in this difficulty, the objective 
test clarified and exposed the true situation and pointed 
the underlying causes as no purely observation study could 
ever do. Further, it indicated its value, incidentally, in 
answering clearly and positively the question as to the 
justification for principals to assume very high or very low 
standards of marking in their buildings. The injustice to 
the pupils of such resultant variations between schools is 
unmasked with startling definition. 



i02 NATIOlfTALITY AND SCHOOL PROGRESS 

Accordingly the superintendent is failing in his responsi- 
bility to the foreign constituents of his community if he does 
not seek to discover and apply such means as will most 
effectively serve their peculiar needs and requirements. 
And this is to be done, not by snap judgment and by personal 
opinion and impression, but by the application of scientific 
and objective methods. 

But the lesson must not stop with the school. There is 
food for thought here for the leaders of these peoples who 
are seeking to become good Americans. Those men who 
are the acknowledged guides of the Swedish people, of the 
Jewish people, of the Italian people, in this country must 
come to recognize the handicaps under which their people 
are working, and must come to feel that real Americans are 
not Swedes, or Jews, or Yankees, or Italians, but are men 
and women with common ideals and aspirations, and that 
these ideals are to be interpreted in one language and one 
method of expression. In the new home — for the old figure 
of the ''asylum" must be forgotten, and the new figure of 
the ''home" must replace it — in the new home, then, there 
must be that facility of intercourse which is characteristic 
of the home, of the true home in which father, mother and 
children are in harmony, each understanding the other and 
contributing to the common cause. The encouragement of 
the foreign language in the newspaper, the pulpit, or the 
home, is directly subversive of this home spirit; and worse 
yet, it is definitely antagonistic to the interests of these 
peoples in their desire to compete with the native born of 
native ancestry in the struggle for maintenance. 

But further, the responsibility rests on the leaders of the 
work in Americanism in the legislative halls and in the judicial 
positions of our country. Our social workers have inaugu- 
rated a work which hits at the heart of the difficulty, in work- 
ing, through continuation schools and community centers. 



Summary and Conclusions 103 

for classes of mothers to study the English language and the 
civic and social responsibilities of the American mother. 
This will go far to solve the difficulty; but the real test comes 
when the laws of this country relating to citizenship are 
applied. If the prospective citizen is really in earnest in 
becoming naturalized, if he really desires to abjure allegiance 
to the country of his birth, and to cast his lot and his fortunes 
as well as those of his children, with the new country as the 
country of his first choice, he must be able to show this 
desire by objective facts. If he still clings to the language 
of his birth as his chosen medium, if he is not willing to 
adopt the language as well as the freedom of conduct and 
the equality of opportunity of the new home, he is not at 
heart ready for citizenship. If, on the other hand, he and 
his wife are trying, laboriously and slowly, perhaps, but 
surely, to use the new language in their home life and home 
circle, if they are reading English newspapers, if they are 
attending church services conducted in English, then it 
may be fairly assumed that they are in truth on the road 
to becoming Americans. Their children will not rest under 
a weight of almost insupportable burden in their attem.pt to 
achieve their rightful place in the life to which they are 
introduced. In the light of the facts herein revealed, even 
if there were no other compelling and vital issues of American- 
ization resting on the decisions of our legislators in the 
immediate future, the need for careful revision of the 
naturalization laws and practice would seem to be im- 
perative. 



104 Nationality and School Progress 

IX. BIBLIOGRAPHY 

This list covers books referred to or consulted in the course of the inquiry. 
Studies Referring to Nationality in the Schools 

Ayres, Leonard P. 1909. Laggards in our Schools. Russell Sage Foundation 

Publications. 
Ayres, L. P. and Judd, C. H. 1916. A Survey of the Cleveland Schools. 

Volume entitled '^Measuring the Work of the Public Schools.''^ Cleveland 

Foundation, Survey Committee. 
Chadwick, R. D, 1918. Know Your School. Journal of Education, Boston, 

Oct. 31, 1918. 
Van Denburg, J. K. 1911. Causes of Elimination of Students in the New York 

Public Secondary Schools of New York City. Teachers College, Columbia 

University, Contributions to Education, No. 47. 
United States Census Reports of 1910 

References to Problems of Race and Nationality 

DoMiNiAN, Leon. 1917. Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Europe. 

Henry Holt and Co., N. Y. 
Babington, W. D. 1895. Fallacies of Race Theories as Applied to National 

Characteristics. Longmans, Green & Co. London. 
Peschel, Oscar. 1892. The Races of Man. Appleton & Co., N. Y. 
Tylor, R B. 1889. Anthropology. Appleton & Co., N. Y. 
Zangwill, Israel. 1917. The Principle of Nationalities. Macmillan, N. Y. 
Thomson, J. A. 1910. Heredity. G. P. Putnam's Sons, N. Y. 

References to Retardation and Acceleration 

Ayres, L. P. 1909. Laggards in our Schools. 

Bachman, Franz P. 1915. Problems in Elementary School Administration. 

World Book Co., Yonkers, N. Y. 
Strayer, Geo. D. 1911. Age-Grade Census of Schools and Colleges. U. S. 

Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 5, 1911. 
Baileff, Mathilda V. 1917. An Educational Diagnosis of a Group of Seventh 

Grade Minneapolis Public School Children. Unpublished. Thesis filed in 

University of Miimesota Library. 

References to Tests, Scales and Measurements' 

Thorndike, E. L. 1913. Mental and Social Measurements. Teachers' College, 

Colimabia University, N. Y. 
RuGG, H. O. 1917. Statistical Methods Applied to Education. Houghton, 

Mifflin Co., N. Y. 



Bibliography 105 

Trabue, M. R. 1916. Completion-Test Language Scales. Teachers College, 
Columbia University, Contributions to Education, No. 77. 

Carufel, Mary. 1918. A Number Completion Test. Unpublished. Thesis 
filed in the University of Minnesota Library. 

Sister Jeanne-Marie. 1919. A Vocabulary Test. Unpublished. Thesis 
filed in the University of Minnesota Library. 

Additional Tables 

The need for conserving paper and space has led to the omission of many 
interesting tables of distrij^ution. These are on file in the library of the Grad- 
uate School of the University of Minnesota, as well as in the Department of 
Education of Dartmouth College, and may be consulted in either place. 



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